1、 原南京中大附属医院神内科主任、硕士生导师原南京中大附属医院神内科主任、硕士生导师佛山大学医学院医学系孟红旗教授、主任医师佛山大学医学院医学系孟红旗教授、主任医师Professor、Doctor director 、Neurologist呼吸系统的组成呼吸生理呼吸频率呼吸频率respiratory rates 正常人(平静状态)正常人(平静状态) 1620/分分 R :P = 1:41. 呼吸过速呼吸过速(24次次/分):分): 意义:意义: 发热、贫血、甲亢、心功不发热、贫血、甲亢、心功不 全、胸全、胸 水、气胸;水、气胸;2.呼吸过缓呼吸过缓( 12次次/分分) 意义:镇静剂过量、意义:镇
2、静剂过量、 麻醉剂过量、颅麻醉剂过量、颅 内压升高等内压升高等(水肿、出血、肿瘤等)水肿、出血、肿瘤等). .nDyspnea is defined as an awareness of difficulty in breathing It is therefore a symptom, usually described by the patient as “short of breath.” nIf the symptom becomes striking, it always companies with dilatation of nares, cyanosis, use of acc
3、essory muscles of respiration and abnormalities of respiratory rate, depth or rhythm. 呼吸困难的分级分级临床表现级正常活动同年龄健康者一样级平地步行同健康者,但上坡或上下台阶可出现气象级平地步行不及健康者,但若慢行可达1.6km以上级须边边走,方行走50m级说话穿衣均有气急,因呼吸困难不能外出EtiologynThe most frequent causes of dyspnea are cardiorespiratory disease. The other is toxic, neuropsychogen
4、ic, hematologic, the increase of abdominal pressure (massive ascites, pregnancy etc).nRespiratory diseasesn Circulatory diseasesn Poisoning n Hematologyn Neuropsychogenic factors1呼吸系统疾病 n(1)气道阻塞:支气管哮喘、慢性阻塞性肺气肿及喉、气管与支气管的炎症、水肿、肿瘤或异物所致狭窄或梗阻;(2)肺脏疾病:如肺炎、肺脓肿、肺淤血、肺水肿、弥漫性肺间质纤维化、肺不张、肺栓塞、细支气管肺泡癌、急性呼吸窘迫综合征等;(
5、3)胸廓疾患:如严重胸廓畸形、气胸、大量胸腔积液和胸部外伤等;(4)神经肌肉疾病:如脊髓灰质炎病变及颈髓、急性炎症性脱髓鞘性多发性神经病(格林-巴利综合征)和重症肌无力累及呼吸肌,药物导致呼吸肌麻痹等;(5)膈运动障碍:如膈麻痹、高度鼓肠、大量腹水、腹腔巨大肿瘤、胃扩张和妊娠末期。病例_气道阻塞n患者因夜间突发憋气喘息大汗,经120送入急诊抢救室,当时已经表现重度紫绀,呼吸浅慢几乎停止等急性呼吸衰竭症状,末梢血氧饱和度达30%,立即给与气管插管吸氧及输液抗心衰治疗,病人神智转清,当时综合判断考虑为除外哮喘,可能由于急性左心衰致呼吸衰竭,病情既已稳定即将气管插管拔除,但病人逐渐出现呼吸困难,并再
6、度紫绀,当时立即加强抗心衰并给与氨茶碱和激素治疗,并无效果,只好再给与气管插管。n病情稳定后拔管时,病人手指喉咙并表示憋气,医生方发现患者颈部有肿块,立即给与气管插管,随后检查并询问家属病史,方知患者有甲状腺腺瘤史,一直拒绝手术治疗。随后经头颈外科手术治疗,患者康复出院。这是一个极简单的误诊病例,但是一位年资不浅的住院医师和一位二线主治医师均疏忽了大气道堵塞的体征,原因很简单:一,急诊抢救病人呼吸困难以心肺疾患为多,使急诊医生先入为主;二,病因诊断未仔细询问,如果没有明确的心脏器质性疾病、无哮喘及炎症的诱发原因,不应首先得出急性左心衰或者哮喘甚至肺栓塞的诊断;三,急诊抢救当时及急诊抢救过后容易
7、忽略常规的全面查体,如颈部、腹部、下肢、皮肤及关节疾病,尽管由这些部位疾病如颈部肿瘤、尿潴留、下肢丹毒或静脉血栓、老年关节脱位或骨折等疾病常导致呼吸异常及精神异常。综合上述,急诊室是多科疾病综合表现的场所,急诊医生不仅要有重点突出,迅速判断病因诊断的习惯,还应加强相邻学科的学习,养成思路宽广,全面查体,反复评估的习惯。n2循环系统疾病:各种原因所致的心力衰竭、心包积液。3中毒:如尿毒症、糖尿病酮症酸中毒、吗啡中毒、亚硝酸盐中毒和一氧化碳中毒等。4血液病:如重度贫血、高铁血红蛋白血症和硫化血红蛋白血症等。5神经精神因素:如颅脑外伤、脑出血、脑肿瘤、脑及脑膜炎症致呼吸中枢功能障,精神因素所致呼吸困
8、难,如癔病。n一天值晚班,正处理两个危重患者。突然急诊科医生送一病人果来,直呼:重症支气管哮喘患者!只见患者气喘严重,面色苍白。顺口告诉护士:安排好床位,予以甲强龙120mg加糖水,静脉滴注。护士赶紧配药去了。我随即跟患者进入病房。只见病人不停喝水。随口问一句。那么口干吗?回答:都口干一礼拜了。她老公搭一句:两天没吃饭啦,只给她喝点糖水。赶紧叫护士查血糖,乖乖:33.3mmol/L,尿酮体3。糖尿病酮症酸中毒!护士已经把甲强龙都挂在输液架上了!n病房有一位老年晚期肿瘤患者(MM),近几日出现咳嗽气急症状,胸片示右上叶大片感染灶,马上予积极抗感染。两天后气急突发加重,脸色疮白,大汗,伴咳带红色血
9、丝白色粘痰,血压155/88,心率160,要后仰半卧位,双下肢无水肿,考虑为急性肺部感染诱发急性心衰,经强心利尿扩血管吸氧,吗啡降氧耗,甚至无创通气都用了,还是没有缓解,本身就是晚期患者,就和家属谈话也准备放弃,这时一位护士嘟喏了一句“达美康有没有停”,才想起患者原有糖尿病,一直在用达美康,病情加重胃口差了药却没停,赶紧查血糖1.1mmol/l,还是用了大量激素后,背心直冒汗。患者是两天后才去世的,总体病情是无法挽回的,但心里仍内疚。 Mechanism & clinical feature1、Respiratory dyspnea2、 Cardiac dyspnea 3、 Toxic dys
10、pnea 4、 Neuro-Psychogenic dyspnea5、 Hematological dyspnea 1.Respiratory dyspnea Caused by abnormal ventilation and gas exchange, reduction in ventilatory capacity, hypercapnia and hypoxemia resulting from respiratory disease. Three clininal types: Inspiratory dyspnea Expiratory dyspnea Mixed dyspnea
11、 Inspiratory dyspneanTends to occur primarily when there is obstruction ( such as inflammation, edema, tumor and foreign body) in larynx, trachea and major bronchi. nOften accompanied by a coarse, low pitched inspiratory wheezing and dry cough. nCharacterized by the depression sigh, in which visible
12、 indrawing over the sternal notch, the supraclavioular spaces, the intercostal spaces and the epigastrium in the inspiration can be seen. 胸胸骨骨上上窝窝锁锁 骨上窝骨上窝肋间隙肋间隙 三 凹 征n(1)吸气性呼吸困难:主要特点表现为吸气显著费力,严重者吸气时可见“三凹征”,表现为胸骨上窝、锁骨上窝和肋间隙明显凹陷,此时亦可伴有干咳及高调吸气性喉鸣。三凹征的出现主要是由于呼吸肌极度用力,胸腔负压增加所致。常见于喉部、气管、大支气管的狭窄与阻塞。病例_气道阻塞
13、n刚工作时,一天有个外地病人以扁桃体炎门诊输液,急性病容,烦燥不安。护士叫我去看病人,病历上示扁桃腺三度肿大,有脓性分泌物。头孢三嗪抗炎治疗。我一看诊断明确,也没多想,安慰了一下。大概10分钟后病人烦燥加重,言语含糊不清,声音嘶哑,讲话费力,用手指喉部。我急请首诊医生和五官科医生,他们看了病人也没说出个所以然来。这时病人极度烦燥,手抓喉部,明显呼吸困难,已讲不出话。用手拉着我的工作服不放。窒息!立即找来一粗针头,慌乱中穿了几次才进去,可能针头不够粗,也没什么效果。立即准备气管切开。(这是我第一次做气管切开)准备用物花了5分钟左右的时间,等我来到床头时病人已面色青紫,停止呼吸了。院长指示继续把气
14、管切开,笨手笨脚的把气管上开了个口子,插了个气管插管导管进去(医院里只有这么一个管子)。因为是外地人,几个小时后家属才赶到。Expiratory dyspneanExpiratory dyspnea is due to the decrease of lung elasticity and spasm narrowing of the bronchioles and smaller bronchi as in emphysema, bronchial asthma and asthmatic bronchitis.nExpiration is prolonged and laboured wi
15、th wheezing. n(2)呼气性呼吸困难:主要特点表现为呼气费力、呼气缓慢、呼吸时间明显延长,常伴有呼气期哮鸣音。主要是由于肺泡弹性减弱和(或)小支气管的痉挛或炎症所致。常见于慢性支气管炎(喘息型)、慢性阻塞性肺气肿、支气管哮喘、弥漫性泛细支气管炎等。 Mixed dyspneanOccurs with the extensive lung disease, such as severe pneumonia, pulmonary fibrosis, pleural effusion and pneumothorax.nResults in the decrease of ventila
16、tors and gas exchange capacity. nBreathing is difficult during both inspiration and expiration.n(3)混合性呼吸困难:主要特点表现为吸气期及呼气期均感呼吸费力、呼吸频率增快、深度变浅,可伴有呼吸音异常或病理性呼吸音。主要是由于肺或胸膜腔病变使肺呼吸面积减少导致换气功能障碍所致。常见于重症肺炎、重症肺结核、大面积肺梗死、弥漫性肺间质疾病、大量胸腔积液、气胸、广泛性胸膜增厚等。病例_混合性呼吸困难n有次在急诊上班,来了一个20岁左右的年轻女性,说是有点感冒,面色有点苍白,乏力,我听了她的两肺,感觉呼吸音
17、有点低,一侧还更低点,我看她呼吸本来就很缓慢,而且由于是年轻女性,我是隔衣服听的,我就当她是感冒了,准备开药。正好主任来了,感觉这女孩有点不对劲,就听了她两肺。说要拍胸片,那女孩不肯,主任不放她走,后来免费掏钱给她做了胸透,一侧大量(几乎整个)胸腔积液,纵隔有移位了。原来她感冒已经两周以上了,未吃药,这次是感觉胸闷不适来的。主任教训我:既然你已经有点怀疑了,为什么不接着查下去。医学上不能带侥幸的。我想,因为我怕她害羞没仔细检查,却差点要了她的命。2.Cardiac dyspneaCardiac dyspnea is usually attributable to pulmonary vascu
18、lar congestion resulting from the left and/or right heart failure.Cardiac dyspneanIn Left-sided heart failure, compliance( 顺应性)is reduced, and therefore, ventilation is decreased to the edematous lung regions and vital capacity reduced. Alveoli are stiff and more work is needed to overcome elastic r
19、ecoil, the high alveolar pressure will stimulate stretch receptor and initiate the inflation reflex resulting in early turning off of inspiration and an increase in respiratory rate. Cardiac dyspneanThe dyspnea caused by right-sided heart failure is less severe than that one caused by left-sided. nM
20、echanism: (1) The pressure of right atrial and superior vena cava is the natural stimulus of respiratory center. (2) The decrease of oxygen content and the accumulation of the acid metabolites, such as lactic, stimulate respiratory center. (3) The restriction of the respiratory movement caused by en
21、largement of liver resulting from congestion, ascites and pleural effusion. 体循环淤血体循环淤血 1.1. 右心房舆上腔右心房舆上腔V V压压 刺激压力感受器刺激压力感受器 反射性兴奋呼吸中枢反射性兴奋呼吸中枢2.2. 血氧含量血氧含量,酸性产物堆积酸性产物堆积 刺激呼吸中枢刺激呼吸中枢3.3. 淤血性肝大、胸水、腹水淤血性肝大、胸水、腹水 呼吸运动受限呼吸运动受限 常见于:慢性肺心病、风湿性心脏病常见于:慢性肺心病、风湿性心脏病. .另外,也可见于各种原因所致的急性或慢性心包积液。其发生呼吸困难的主要机制是大量心包渗
22、液致心包压塞或心包纤维性增厚、钙化、缩窄,使心脏舒张受限,引起体循环静脉瘀血所致。 右心衰竭发生呼吸困难的机制n一男性67岁患者,因反复胸闷气急伴咳嗽咳痰10余天,加重2天入急诊,既往无明确慢支病史,但有吸烟:23包30年,无结核史,胸片示两肺纹理增多伴感染,呼吸科两班医生会诊考虑支气管炎予收治,因床位紧张在急诊留观,第二天,当班二唤(第3个呼吸科会诊医生)说查个心超看看,排除一下心脏问题,结果示大量心包积液,立即请心内科会诊收治,马上行心包穿刺引流,化验脱落细胞阳性,家属一直对急诊当时差点漏诊耿耿于怀。体检没有发现心包积液的体症么,哎。Cardiac dyspneaSymptoms of c
23、ongestive heart failure can cause orthopnea and paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea when elevated-filling pressure is present. orthopneanOrthopnea is difficulty in breathing in the supine position, this may be relived by sitting up, which reduces the degree of pulmonary congestion by pooling blood in the l
24、ower extremities and lowering left ventricular filling pressures, improving the diaphragmatic movement, increasing vital capacity.paroxysmal nocturnal dyspneanSymptoms: The patient awakes short of breath at night, but often obtain relief by sitting up for a period of time. In the most advanced cases
25、, the patients become acutely dyspneic, cyanotic and very frequently produce foamy sputum tinged with blood. nSigns: Moist rales at the both lung bases, tachycardia, wheezing and bronchospasm, the markedly accentuated second heart sound in the pulmonic area. nMechanism: Supine posture for sleep resu
26、lts in resorbtion of extracellular fluid into the intravascular space, causing arise in filling pressure. n The paroxysmal dyspnea is termed as cardiac asthma. It can be seen in the hypertensive heart disease and coronary heart disease. 3.Toxic dyspneanIn the metabolic acidosis (uremia and diabetic
27、ketosis), the acid metabolites stimulate the respiratory center, causing deep and regular respiration with snoring.nThe overdose of morphine and pentobarbital can depress respiratory center causing deep respiration or Cheyne-Stokess respiration 中毒性呼吸困难n见于代谢性酸中毒、药物中毒、化学毒物中毒等。代谢性酸中毒可导致血中代谢产物增多,刺激颈动脉窦、
28、主动脉体化学受体或直接兴奋刺激呼吸中枢引起呼吸困难。其主要表现为:有引起代谢性酸中毒的基础病因,如尿毒症、糖尿病酮症等;出现深长而规则的呼吸,可伴有鼾音,称为酸中毒大呼吸(Kussmaul呼吸)。 n某些药物如吗啡类、巴比妥类等中枢抑制药物和有机磷杀虫药中毒时,可抑制呼吸中枢引起呼吸困难。其主要特点为:有药物或化学物质中毒史;呼吸缓慢、变浅伴有呼吸节律异常的改变如Cheyne-Stokes呼吸(潮式呼吸)或Biots呼吸(间停呼吸)。女子不满逼婚吞500片安定 n 化学毒物中毒可导致机体缺氧引起呼吸困难,常见于一氧化碳中毒、亚硝酸盐和苯胺类中毒、氰化物中毒。其发生机制分别为:一氧化碳中毒时,吸
29、人的CO与血红蛋白结合形成碳氧血红蛋白,失去携带氧的能力导致缺氧而产生呼吸困难;亚硝酸盐和苯胺类中毒时,使血红蛋白变为高铁血红蛋白失去携带氧的能力导致缺氧;氰化物中毒时,氢离子抑制细胞色素氧化酶的活性,影响细胞呼吸作用,导致组织缺氧引起呼吸困难,严重时引起脑水肿抑制呼吸中枢。电镀厂4人氰化物中毒身亡 Neuro-Psychogenic dyspneanIn patients suffering from cerebrovascular diseases (intracranial hemorrhage, elevated intracerebral pressure), the respira
30、tory center loses the blood supply or is compressed. The respiration becomes deep, slow and irregular. nIn some cases the dyspnea may be psychogenic, which is characterized by repetitive deep, sighing respiration with numbness of extremities or lips, cheiropedal spasm. These are also manifestations
31、of acute hypocapnia and respiratory alkalosis.n神经精神性呼吸困难 神经性呼吸困难主要是由于呼吸中枢受增高的颅内压和供血减少的刺激,使呼吸变为慢而深,并常伴有呼吸节律的改变,如双吸气(抽泣样呼吸)、呼吸遏制(吸气突然停止)等。临床上常见于重症颅脑疾患,如脑出血、脑炎、脑膜炎、脑脓肿、脑外伤及脑肿瘤等。 n 精神性呼吸困难主要表现为呼吸频率快而浅,伴有叹息样呼吸或出现手足搐搦。临床上常见于癔症患者,病人可突然发生呼吸困难。其发生机制多为过度通气而发生呼吸性碱中毒所致,严重时也可出现意识障碍。Hematological dyspneanIn sever
32、e anemia, sulfhemoglobinemia, methaemoglobinemia or carbon monoxide poisoning the decrease of oxygen-carrying capacity and oxygen content develop abnormal respiration and increased heart rate. nThe respiration rate also increases in shock which stimulates respiration center because of hypotension. n
33、血源性呼吸困难 多由红细胞携氧量减少,血氧含量降低所致。表现为呼吸浅,心率快。临床常见于重度贫血、高铁血红蛋白血症、硫化血红蛋白血症。除此以外,大出血或休克时,因缺氧和血压下降,刺激呼吸中枢,也可使呼吸加快。Accompanied SymptomnParoxysmal dyspnea with wheezing. n Dyspnea with chest pain.n Dyspnea with fever.n Dyspnea with cough and purulent sputum.n Dyspnea with coma. Paroxysmal dyspnea with wheezingI
34、t is present in bronchial asthma and cardiac asthma. Paroxysmal severe dyspnea is often seen in acute larynx edema, foreign body in bronchi, massive pulmonary embolism, and spontaneous pneumothorax. n 1发作性呼吸困难伴哮鸣音:见于支气管哮喘、心源性哮喘;突发性重度呼吸困难见于急性喉水肿、气管异物、大面积肺栓塞、自发性气胸等。Dyspnea with chest pain.It is freque
35、ntly observed in lobar pneumonia, pulmonary infarction, spontaneous pneumothorax, acute exudative pleurisy, acute myocardial infarction, and bronchial carcinoma. n呼吸困难伴一侧胸痛:见于大叶性肺炎、急性渗出性胸膜炎、肺栓塞、自发性气胸、急性心肌梗死、支气管肺癌等。 Dyspnea with fever. It is commonly noted in pneumonia, lung abscess, pulmonary tuberc
36、ulosis, pleurisy, acute pericarditis, and nervous system diseases. n呼吸困难伴发热:多见于肺炎、肺脓肿、肺结核、胸膜炎、急性心包炎等。nDyspnea with cough and purulent sputum. It is often present in chronic bronchitis, obstructive pulmonary emphysema with infection, purulent pneumonia, and lung abscess; Dyspnea with large amount of
37、foamy sputum is often seen in acute left ventricular heart failure and organophosphorus poisoning. n呼吸困难伴咳嗽、咳痰:见于慢性支气管炎、阻塞性肺气肿继发肺部感染、支气管扩张症、肺脓肿等;伴大量泡沫痰可见于有机磷中毒;伴粉红色泡沫痰见于急性左心衰竭。 Dyspnea with coma It suggests cerebral hemorrhage, meningitis, pneumonia with shock, uremia, diabetic ketoacidosis, and acu
38、te poisoning. n呼吸困难伴意识障碍:见于脑出血、脑膜炎、糖尿病酮症酸中毒、尿毒症、肺性脑病、急性中毒、休克型肺炎等。 n有一次值班,120送来一个年轻的女病人,在和朋有吃火锅是突发呼吸困难,气促,送来时病人已深昏迷,据发病不过10分钟左右,体检发现呼吸频率23次/分,呼吸成叹气样,大汗淋漓,口唇及全身皮肤发绀,心率130次/分,双肺心脏腹部没有发现阳性体征,四肢肌张力高,手臂上有新鲜及陈旧的针眼,朋友诉由吸毒史,第一诊断为海洛因中毒,给于大剂量纳洛铜治疗后患者呼吸无恢复,给于气管内插管,抢救同时询问病史,朋友诉发病前喝过一口醋,恍然大悟是否为过敏性哮喘,立即予以甲强龙抗过敏治疗,
39、同时解痉平喘等,病人很快神志转清,呼吸频率正常,2小时撤机,2天后出院。好险,差点被第一印象所迷惑,导致误诊,还好! n一日夜班,有个患者胸闷气短口唇手指发绀,端坐呼吸呼吸急速不能活动做检查,赶上床头照也坏了,问病史下午做过胸穿,按急性肺水肿治疗无效,请示带班主任主任查体背部触诊皮下气肿,原来胸穿扎破了肺子 n患者36岁男性,既往无哮喘病史,此次因突发呼吸困难送来抢救室。入院后表现为典型的呼、吸双期性呼吸困难及严重紫绀,两肺呼吸音减低,但神智尚清楚,诊断为支气管哮喘,经吸氧,爱喘乐储雾吸入,氨茶碱静脉推注及点滴,及甲基强的松龙静脉等多种治疗,病情仍无明显改善,并愿取坐位前倾。床旁胸片未见肺气肿
40、、气胸及胸膜异常,故考虑为气管病变。经急诊气管镜检查,主支气管接近分杈处前壁可见一处肿瘤,使气道堵塞三分之二,气管镜不能通过。因肿块较大,镜下不能治疗,只能考虑开胸手术,家属因故不接受继续治疗,患者于一小时后死亡。此例患者为年轻男性,哮喘的诊断思路应当没错,很多患者急性发作哮喘并没有能说得出的诱因。此患者所愿采取的体位与普通哮喘患者为平衡V/Q采取坐位没有差别,也不能肯定有前壁的气管肿瘤,因其根部有蒂可移动导致卧位堵塞气道而加重呼吸困难,但因有此特殊体位,且经过积极的抗哮喘治疗无效,就应考虑做气管镜的检查。此患者平素应该有类似的体位,因失访也不能补充病史。此病例给急诊科的教训,是能够进行迅速的
41、相关专业科室配合,包括放射、超声、镜检检查及治疗,甚至心胸外科的积极协助,以求得最有效的诊断和治疗技术。医院应从患者角度设置急诊可能的各种需求,以成功抢救每一例有希望存活的患者。n一多年肺心病老患者,长期卧床吸氧在我科住院,平日病情相对平稳,突然一天主诉心慌气短胸闷,端坐呼吸,不能平卧,值班医生共做三次心电图均为窦性心动过速,心肌缺血,查心肌酶均正常,急查动脉血气,血氧分压较前所查明显降低为I型呼衰,先后多次给予西地兰及速尿静推并开大吸氧流量开关均无改善,值班医生怀疑有无肺栓塞请示上级医生做肺CT及肺灌注显像,上级医生指示,先查一下吸氧管有无漏气,经查吸氧管漏气的厉害,更换吸氧管后不一会患者明显好转.原来老人家大半天就一口氧气都没吸上.做医生一定要注意细节呀!
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