英语教学法教程unit11课件.ppt-(课件无音视频)

1、2Aims of the Unit To understand the meaning of readingTo understand what are the components for the good readerTo know the factors affecting the reading processTo know three models for reading and three levels of readingTo get to know the principles of reading and teaching reading stages and activit

2、ies 3What is reading?1.Reading is a psycholinguistic guessing game,a process in which readers sample the text,make hypotheses about what is coming next,sample the text again in order to test their hypotheses,confirm(or disconfirm)them,make new hypotheses,and so forth.(Goodman,1967)2.Reading is a cre

3、ative art,reading is interaction,reading id interpretation,reading is a social art,and reading is responding.(Eric)3.Reading is an interactive process,involving knowledge of the world and various types of language knowledge,any of which may interact with any other to contribute to text comprehension

4、.(Carrell et al 1988)4.Reading is an active process of comprehending and the students need to be taught strategies to read more efficiently.(Clark and Silberstein 1977)4contentsResearch findings about good readersFactors affecting readingStrategies in reading comprehensionPrinciples in teaching read

5、ingApproaches of teaching readingThree levels of readingObjectives of teaching reading5Guidelines for reading instructionContents of teaching instructionClassroom activities Reading stages6Research findings about fluent/good readers1.The difference between good readers and poor readers may lie not i

6、n their ability to guess,but in their decoding skills(Paran,1996)2.Good readers use context less than poor readers do.They decode faster.(Stanovich,1980)3.Good readers may have greater awareness of context,but they do not need to use it while they are reading.(Oakhill and Garnham,1988)4.Good readers

7、 know the language.They can decode with occasional exceptions,both the lexical and syntactic structures they encounter in texts,and they do so for the most part,not by guessing from context or prior knowledge by the word,but by a kind of automatic identification that requires no conscious effort.(Es

8、key D 1988)75.Word recognition is automatic in good readers.(Mitchell,1982)6.Poor readers most make use of contextual redundancy to facilitate recognition.7.A fluent reader may possess the skill of rapid,automatic word recognition,but may resort to strategies such as phonological encoding when faced

9、 with an unfamiliar word.Fluent readers typically ignore rather than guess unknown lexis(Tlmlinson&Ellis,1987)8.Fluent reading is rapid,purposeful,interactive,comprehending,flexible and gradually developing.8Factors affecting reading1.Background knowledgeAccording to Carrell,lack of background knowl

10、edge constitutes one of the main difficulties of reading.A lack of schemata activation is one major source of processing difficulty with second language readers.Thus students need to activate prior knowledge of a topic before they begin to read.If students dont have sufficient prior knowledge,they s

11、hould be given at least minimal background knowledge from which to interpret the text(Barrett,1989;Carrell,1988;Dubin&Bycina,1991)2.MotivationReaders with higher interest engage more carefully with the text,though the level of reader interest is not maintained independently of the text,and may decre

12、ase while reading is in progress,if the text does not meet expectations(Olshaksy,1977)93.VocabularyVocabulary development is a critical component of reading comprehension.Vocabulary is an important predictor of reading ability(Barnett,1986)Shortage of vocabulary and inability to decode automatically

13、 are the prime difficulty in reading.According to a survey,90%of the students who have difficulties in reading report to have decoding difficulty(Footman1996)4.StructureUnfamiliarity with structures may also make it difficult to read.But lexis is a greater source of difficulty in reading than struct

14、ures.5.Reading strategiesStrategies are the insurance of effective reading.Being unable to apply relevant strategies often lead to failure of understanding.106.Instruction Reading instruction plays an important role in the improvement of students reading ability.The procedure of instruction,techniqu

15、es applied,materials selected,monitoring of the reading process,and evaluation of reading all contribute to the improvement of reading ability.Many times,it is the instruction itself that de-motivates the students and hinders their improvement.11The Objectives of the Teaching of the ReadingTo develo

16、p reading proficiencyTo develop linguistic competence12Objectives of reading instruction1.To make readers less reliant on top-down processing,and help them progress towards greater reliance on bottom-up strategies as they become more proficient.2.To train reading skills.As far as skills are concerne

17、d,different researchers propose different lists.3.Objectives of reading instruction at elementary levela.To enable students to develop basic comprehension skills so that they can read and understand texts of a general natureb.To enable students to use reading to increase their general knowledgec.To

18、enable students to decide about their reading purpose and to adapt their methods of reading according to thisd.To enable students to develop the ability to read critically13II.Reading Skills and Language SkillsScanningSkimmingReading for thorough comprehensionCritical readingVocabularyStructureDisco

19、urse14Approaches/models of teaching readingCould not see the wood for the treesCould not see the the treestopbottomIntensive ReadingExtensive Reading16Strategies involved in reading comprehensionThere are two broad levels in the art of reading:1.A recognition task of perceiving visual signals from t

20、he printed page through the eyes;2.A cognitive task of interpreting the visual information,relating the received information with the readers own general knowledge,and reconstructing the meaning that the writer had meant to convey.In order to achieve these two levels of reading,the reader needs to d

21、evelop the following reading strategies:17Specifying a purpose for readingPlanning what to dowhat steps to takePreviewing the textPredicting the contents of the textChecking predictionsSkimming the text for the main ideaScanning the text for specific information Distinguishing main ideas from suppor

22、ting details18Posing questions about the textFinding answers to posed questionsConnecting text to background knowledgeSummarizing informationMaking inferencesConnecting one part of the text to anotherPaying attention to text structureRereading 19Guessing the meaning of a new word from contextUsing d

23、iscourse markers to see relationshipsChecking comprehensionIdentifying difficultiesTaking steps to repair faulty comprehensionCritiquing the authorJudging how well objectives were metReflecting on what has been learned from the text Adapted from Grade and Stoller,2002:83)20Principles for teaching re

24、ading1.The selected texts and attached tasks should be accessible to the students.2.Tasks should be clearly given in advance.Preferably,tasks should motivate students.3.Tasks should be designed to encourage selective and intelligent reading for the main meaning rather than test the students understa

25、nding of trivial details.214.Tasks should help develop students reading skills rather than test their comprehension.5.The teacher should help students not merely to cope with one particular text in class but to develop their reading strategies and reading ability in general.6.The teacher should prov

26、ide enough guidance and assistance at the beginning to help students read and develop reading strategies but gradually withdraw his/her guidance as students progress22Bottom-up model/viewPeople with this view tend to over-emphasize the importance of the bottom-up processing in which the reader ident

27、ifies the text from the smaller constituents to the larger ones and from the lower level to the higher one.The reader works at the text letter by letter,word for word,piece by piece,line by line.He starts with spelling,recognizes the word and tries to understand its meaning,and then goes through the

28、 same procedures with the next word until he gets a phrase and then next phrase,and perhaps a sense group until a clause is identified and then,maybe,next clause.He goes on doing the same thing with even letter and very word and gets a sentence and continue to find the following sentence,then paragr

29、aphs and finally the whole discourse.That is to say,he is decoding every word every phrase every clause and every sentence up to every paragraph and the whole text.He begins at the very bottom meaning of every word and works towards the meaning of the whole discourse.This is bottom-up processing and

30、 this is what one is mainly doing when he is reading.23(Based on Camboume,B.1979.How important is theory to the reading Teacher?Australian Journal/Reading,2:78-90.Cited in Nunan 1991:64)This model has been very important and still emphasized and advocated by those who attach more importance to basic

31、s and was the basis of many reading schemes(Camboums1979 cited in Nunan1991:63)According to the bottom-up approach,the biggest difficulty in reading is vocabulary.So in its pre-reading stage,it always includes some vocabulary learning activities.Even its brainstorming activity will focus on the voca

32、bulary to appear in the text.During the while-reading stage,it also has some activities for practice and consolidation of vocabulary and structures.24Top-down model/viewDifferent from those with bottom-up view,those in favor of top-down view emphasize the equal importance of top-down processing.They

33、 believe that language comprehension involves two processingbottom-up processing and top-down processing at the same time.While the reader is being engaged in working out the meaning of the text at bottom levels,he is also using his own knowledge and applies it to the up-coming information gained by

34、 decoding bottom-up processing.His own knowledge applied here to the reading processing may include his knowledge of this world factual and sociocultural knowledge,knowledge of the topic of the text,knowledge of the situation and context,knowledge of the organization of the text etc.The result of th

35、e application of his own knowledge are his expectations anticipations and hypotheses about what has bee reading,what is being read and what is to be read.While he is making sense of what is read,he is making 25hypotheses of what is read.The whole process of reading is a process of making hypotheses

36、and predicting,matching his hypothesis to the up-coming decoded information,confirming and revising his hypotheses,testing out and modifying his predictions,and trying to interpret what is read.It is a process of interaction between the reader and the text.During this whole process of reading,the re

37、ader is bringing knowledge from outside the text to the task of interpreting and comprehending the text itself.In other words,he is utilizing both“inside the head”knowledge and“outside the head”knowledge to interpret what he sees.The use of“inside the head”knowledge,that is,knowledge which is not di

38、rectly encoded in the words he is reading is known as the top-down view.Top-down approach treats reading as a guess game.It emphasizes the role of background knowledge in the understanding of the material.Different readers will,because of different experiences of the world,create different meaning f

39、rom the same text.So at its pre-reading stage,it tends to arrange for activities to activate readers schema,or encourage the readers to predict the text.26Interactive-compensatory View(interactive model)Stanovich proposes a third model which he calls an interactive-compensatory model.As the name ind

40、icates,this model suggests that reader process texts by utilizing information provided simultaneously from several different sources,and that they can compensate for deficiencies at one level by drawing on knowledge at other levels.(either higher or lower).These sources include all those looked at s

41、eparately in bottom-up and top-down processes,that is phonological,lexical,syntactic,semantic and discoursal knowledge.Stanovich claims that his alternative model is superior because it deals with the shortcomings inherent in other models.The major deficiency of the bottom-up model is that it assume

42、s the initiation of higher-level processes,such as use of background knowledge must await lower level decoding processes.The top-down model,on the other hand,does not allow lower level processes to direct higher level ones.The interactive-compensatory model allows deficiencies at one level to be com

43、pensated for at another,and this allows for the possibility that readers with poor reading skills at the levels of grapheme and word can27Compensate for these by using other sources of knowledge such as the syntactic class of a given word or semantic knowledge.Given deficiencies of lower level skill

44、s,poor readers may actually be more dependent on higher-level processes than good readers.The interactive approach regards reading as an interactive activity.First,it is general interaction between the reader and the text.The reader(re)constructs the text information based in part on the knowledge d

45、rawn from the text and in part from the prior knowledge available to the reader.Second,it is interaction of many component skills potentially in simultaneous operation.The interaction of these cognitive skills leads to fluent reading comprehension.28Schema theoryAccording to schema theory,comprehend

46、ing a text is an interactive process between the readers background knowledge and the text.Efficient comprehension requires the ability to relate the textual material to ones own knowledge.Comprehending words,sentences,and entire texts involves more than just relying on ones linguistic knowledge.As

47、Anderson points out“every act of comprehension involves ones knowledge of the world as well”According to schema theory,the process of interpretation is guided by the principle that every input is mapped against some existing schema and that all aspects of that schema must be compatible with the inpu

48、t information.This principle results in two basic modes of information processing,called bottom-up and top-down processing.Bottom-up processing is evoked by the incoming data.The features of the data enter the system through the best fitting bottom-level schemeta.Schemata are hierarchically organize

49、d,from most general at the top to most specific at the bottom.As these bottom-level schemata converge into higher level,more general schemata,these too become activated.29Bottom-up processing is therefore,called data-driven;Top-down processing,on the other hand,occurs as the system makes general pre

50、dictions based on higher level,general schemata and then searches the input for information to fit into these partially satisfied,higher order schemata.Top-down processing is therefore,called conceptually driven.An important aspect of top-down and bottom-up processing is that both should be occurrin