英语写作手册课件.ppt

1、English WritingDiction nDiction is the choice and use of words.The English language has a big vocabulary:as many as 400,000 words are collected in the Oxford English Dictionary.Of course no one knows or uses so many words.Only a small amount of them are used by ordinary people for ordinary purposes.

2、nA student learning to write should learn to use the words that are most useful and most often used to express him.Contentsn1.Levels of wordsn2.The meaning of wordsn3.General and Specific Wordsn4.Idiomsn5.Figures of speechn英文写作中怎样避免用词的重复英文写作中怎样避免用词的重复n中英语言中用来喻人的植物的差异中英语言中用来喻人的植物的差异1.Levels of wordsn

3、词汇选择得是否准确、贴切，对文章是否能收到预期的效果致关重要。在锤炼和选择词语时，除了文章的主题、思想内容、写作目的和读者对象等以外，还必须考虑与之相适应的语言层次(levels of language)。n所谓语言层次，一般可归结为规范英语(standard English)和非规范英语(sub-standard English)。n规范英语又可分为口语(spoken language)和书面语(written language),非正式语(informal language)和正式语(formal language)。例如：nOfficialese 公文 The consumption o

4、f any nutriments whatsoever is categorically prohibited in this establishment商业机构.nOfficial 官方官方 The consumption of nutriments is prohibited.nFormal You are required not to consume food in this establishment.nNeutral Eating is not allowed here.nInformal Please dont eat here.nColloquial You cant feed

5、 your face here.nSlang Lay off the nosh 小吃小吃.nTaboo Lay off the fucking nosh.2.The meaning of wordsThe meaning of a word has two aspects:denotative and connotative 外延和内涵外延和内涵.nA words denotation is what it literally means,as defined by the dictionary;its connotation is the feeling or idea suggested

6、by it.nFor instancencountry,nation,state and land have more or less the same denotation and may all be translated into“国家”in Chinese,but their connotation are quite different.denotative and connotativenCountry means an area of land and its population and its government,nnation emphasizes the people

7、of a country,nstate refers to the government or political organization of a country,and nland is less precise but more literary and emotive than country.nEnglish is particularly rich in synonyms as a result of incorporating words from other language over the centuries.nBut we should remember that it

8、 is difficult to find two words that are exactly the same in meaning and use.They may be different in stylistic level,in the degree of emphasis,in emotional coloring,in tone语气,and in collocation.different in stylistic levelnGenerally speaking,words of Anglo-Saxon origin are more informal than those

9、of Latin or French origin.Look at these words:nask time risenquestion age mount ninterrogate epoch ascendnIn each group,the first word is from Anglo-Saxon and the second and third from French or Latin.The first one is clearly more informal or colloquial than the other two.different in emphasisn“Big”

10、and“large”are both commonly used words,nbut“large”is slightly more formal and may be used to describe things that are usually big,so it is more emphatic than“big”.n“Huge”,which is more literary than those two words,means extremely large,and is more emphatic than“large”.different in tonen“Modest”and“

11、humble”both indicate a lack of pride,nbut“modesty”is a virtue and“humbleness”is not.n“Humble”often connotes undue self-depreciation自我贬低.nSo they are different in tone:one is laudatory and the other is derogatory.3.General and Specific Words nComparatively speaking,some words are more general or more

12、 specific in meaning rather than others.n“Professionals”,for instance,is more general in meaning than“scientists,doctors,teachers,lawyers,journalists”,etc.,all of which are more specific.nBut“scientists”may be called a general word when compared with“physicists or chemists”,which,in turn,is more gen

13、eral than“biochemists”.nAlthough both general and specific words are useful,a student learning to write should make an effort to master and use specific words wherever possible.nSpecific words help to make writing clear,exact,vivid,and striking,for they are more informative and expressive than gener

14、al words.Compare:na good man:kind,honest,just,generous,sympathetic,warm-hearted,selfless,brave,honorablengood food:tasty,delicious,nourishing,rich,wholesome,fresh,appetizing,abundantnhouse:mansion,villa,chateau,cottage,bungalow带带走廊的平房走廊的平房,cabin,hut,shack小室小室,shanty棚屋棚屋,shed货棚货棚,barnnlaugh:smile,gri

15、n,beam微笑示意微笑示意,giggle咯咯地笑咯咯地笑,titter嗤笑嗤笑,snigger窃笑窃笑,chuckle吃吃地笑吃吃地笑,guffaw狂笑狂笑,chortle得意的高笑得意的高笑nIt is easy to see that the specific words on the right are much more concrete and colorful than the general ones on the left;they seem to make the reader see,hear,or feel what the writer wishes to descr

16、ibe.nUse specific words should go along with providing details,and then there will be effective and impressive writing.nStudy the following examples:nGeneral It is often windy and dusty here in spring.nSpecific In spring there is often a very strong northwest wind.It carries so much fine dust with i

17、t that sometimes the sun becomes obscure.There is no escape from the fine dust;it gets into your eyes,your ears,your nostrils,and your hair.It goes through the cracks of closed windows and covers your desks and chairs.nGeneral Students do many interesting things after classes.Specific Every morning

18、and afternoon the sports fields are alive with energetic students.Football and basketball matches,volleyball,and badminton,track-training and gymnastics are all in full swing.Even the alleyways under the trees and around the flower beds provide enough space for enthusiasts to practise.Through the wi

19、ndows comes the pitter-patter of ping-pong balls,the sound of songs and music,or laughter and discussion.4.IdiomsnAn idiom is a fixed group of words with a special meaning which is different from the meanings of the words that form it.n“To read a book”,for instance,is not an idiom,for the meaning of

20、 the phrase is the meaning of the three words put together,and“a book”can be replaced by other words like“a newspaper”or a“novel”.nEnglish is rich in idioms.The following types of idioms are most common:put up with,turn out,look forward to,carry on,come across,a straw in the wind事态发展的一些迹象,the apple

21、of ones eye 掌上明珠,like a fish out of water,and so on.nVOA 的美国习惯用语 nIdioms are frequently used in speech and writing.They help to make ones language sound natural and idiomatic 合乎语言习惯.But in using them foreign learners of English should remember the following two points:n(1)most idioms are informal or

22、 colloquial in style and can be used in conversation;but a few are slang and should be used with care,such as“all balled up”,meaning“troubled or confused”,and to“cough up”,meaning to“produce something”;n(2)many idioms have become clichs and are no longer fresh or interesting,such as“armed to the tee

23、th”and“as good as gold好到极点”,and should be used sparingly.5.Figures of speechnWords used in their original meanings are used literally,while words used in extended meanings for the purpose of making comparisons or calling up pictures in the readers or listeners mind are used figuratively.nIn“a colorf

24、ul garden”the word“colorful”is used in its literal sense,but in a“a colorful life”and“a colorful career”the word is used in its figurative meaning:exciting,interesting,and rich in variety.nThe word suggests a comparison between”life or career“and something that has different colors,like“a garden”,an

25、d because of this association the word is more impressive than a word used in its literal sense,such as“interesting and exciting”.nThere are various ways of using words figuratively.They are called figures of speech.Among the most common of them are:n1)Simile It is a comparison between two distinctl

26、y different things and the comparison is indicated by the word“as or like”:nO my loves like a red,red rose.nThat man cant be trusted.Hes as slippery as an eel.nThe old mans hair is as white as snow.n2)Metaphor It is the use of a word which originally denotes one thing to refer to another with a simi

27、lar quality.It is also a comparison,but the comparison is implied,not expressed with the word as or like.nIf Robert Burns had written“O my loves a red rose”with the word“like”omitted he would have used a metaphor instead of a simile.nIn the changed line,“my love”is also compared to a red rose,but th

28、ere is no word to indicate the comparison;hence rose is a metaphor.nSimilarly,in sentences like“He is the soul of the team.”and“Irrigation is the lifeblood of agriculture”,“soul”and“lifeblood”are used metaphorically.nMetaphors are used not only after verb“to be”,and not only nouns can be used metaph

29、orically.Study the following examples:nThe picture of those poor peoples lives was carved so happily in his heart that he could never forget it.nThe street faded into a country road with a straggling house by it.nThere are a few lordly poplars 白杨白杨 before the house.nHe often prefaced his remarks by“

30、I cant help thinking”n3)Personification It is to treat a thing or an idea as if it were human or bad human qualities.In poetry,personification is very common:Youth is hot and boldAge is weak and coldYouth is wild,and Age is tamenIn these lines“youth and age”are described like two persons.In prose pe

31、rsonification is also used,though not so often as in poetry.nThe match will soon be over and defeat is staring us in the face.nThis time fate is smiling to him.nThunder roared and a pouring rain started.nDusk came stealthily.nThe match will soon be over and defeat is staring us in the face.nThis tim

32、e fate is smiling to him.nThunder roared and a pouring rain started.nDusk came stealthily.n4)Metonymy转喻转喻,换喻换喻 It is substituting the name of one thing for that of another with which it is closely associated.Thus “the crown”can stand for“a king”,and“the White House”for“the American government”,the“b

33、ottle”for“wine or alcohol”,and the“bar”for the“legal profession”.nWhen metonymy is well used,brevity and vividness may be achieved:nSword and cross in hand,the European conquerors fell upon the Americans.nWhen the war was over,he laid down the sword and took up the pen.n5)Synecdoche提喻提喻 When a part

34、is substituted for the whole or the whole is substituted for a part,synecdoche is applied:nThe farms were short of hands during the harvest season.nHe had to earn his daily bread by doing odd jobs.nMetonymy and synecdoche are similar as both involve substitution.Sometimes they can hardly be distingu

35、ished from metaphor,which in a way is also substitution.n6)Euphemism It is the substitution of a mild or vague expression for a harsh or unpleasant one,for example:nUgly:homely/plainnFat:heavyset/chubby/plump/stoutnSkinny:slender/slim/willowy/sveltenTo die:to pass away/leave us/ones heart has stoppe

36、d beatingnOld people:senior citizens/elderly/advanced in agenMad:emotionally disturbednDustman:sanitation workern7)Irony 反话反话 It is the use of words,which are clearly opposite to what is meant,in order to achieve a special effect.Suppose you planned an outing on a certain day,expecting it to be fine

37、;but when the day came it was raining heavily.If you said“What a fine day!”you were speaking ironically.nThis diligent student seldom reads more than an hour per month.n8)Overstatement and understatement nIn overstatement the diction exaggerates the subject,and in understatement the words play down

38、the magnitude or value of the subject.Overstatement is also called hyperbole夸张.nBoth aim at the same effect:to make the statement or description impressive or interesting.nShe is dying to know what job has been assigned her.nIt took a few dollars to build this indoor swimming pool.n9)Transferred Epi

39、thet 移位移位nAn epithet 绰号 is an adjective or descriptive phrase that serves to characterize somebody or something.A transferred epithet is one that is shifted from the noun it logically modifies to a word associated with noun.When one says that“He has had a busy day”,one is using such a figure of spee

40、ch.For it is the person,not the day,that is busy.nShe was so worried about her son that she spent several sleepless nights.nThe old man put a reassuring hand on my shoulder.n用来修饰人的分词有时可以转移到修饰非人的事物用来修饰人的分词有时可以转移到修饰非人的事物,这种这种分词在形式上虽不直接修饰人分词在形式上虽不直接修饰人,但它所修饰的事物仍与人但它所修饰的事物仍与人直接有关直接有关.n10)Oxymoron矛盾修辞矛盾修

41、辞 In oxymoron apparently contradictory terms are combined to produce a special effect.nThe coach had to be cruel and kind to his trainees.nShe read the long-awaited letter with a tearful smile.n11)Alliteration 头韵头韵nIt refers to the appearance of the same initial consonant sound in two or more words,

42、such as“proud as a peacock”and“blind as a bat”.n Alliteration is often used in poetry to give emphasis to words that are related in meaning.英文写作中怎样避免用词的重复英文写作中怎样避免用词的重复 n在英语的文章中，我们可以看到，除了表示强在英语的文章中，我们可以看到，除了表示强调或为了避免意义的含糊外，同一个词或短语调或为了避免意义的含糊外，同一个词或短语很少在同一个句子中连续使用，有时，在一个很少在同一个句子中连续使用，有时，在一个句群或段落中也避免重

43、复使用相同的词。避免句群或段落中也避免重复使用相同的词。避免词汇重复是英语句子的又一特点。这一特点最词汇重复是英语句子的又一特点。这一特点最明显的标志是，英语代词的使用频率远远高于明显的标志是，英语代词的使用频率远远高于汉语。英语主要是通过使用汉语。英语主要是通过使用代词、同义词、近代词、同义词、近义词和省略义词和省略等手段来避免重复。等手段来避免重复。1使用代词回避重复n这是最普通，也是常见的一种方法。nCan you mend this table?I broke it yesterday.nWhen he entered，each was given a small present2用同

44、义词避免重复n这里说的同义词是一个比较宽泛的概念。它包括范畴词、相近词(near-synonym)和派生词等。nThe monkeys extraordinary performance was learning to operate a tractor.By the age of nine，the animal had learned to drive the vehicle single-handedn在第二句仍要提及monkey和tractor，为了回避重复，作者用了animal和vehicle这两个范畴词来替代。范畴词虽然意义宽泛，不太确切，但是在特定的上下文中一般不会引起误解，而且行

45、文也显得更加活泼了。3用省略手段回避重复n省略的主要功能就是避免重复，并能突出新的信息。省略是英语的一种习惯用法，它能节省词语，使语句结构显得紧凑。n1)省略名词省略名词nHe spoke for the first motion and against the second(the secondthe second motion)nThey are fine actors.Smith is the finest Ive ever seenn有时，名词的省略出现在相同的名词之前。Cut off the first and last parts of the play，and leave the

46、n middle(the firstthe first part of the play)n2)省略动词省略动词n谈到动词的省略，典型的例子应首推培根关于读书的那段名言。nSome books are to be tasted，others(are)to be swallowed，and some few(are)to be chewed and digested书有可浅尝者，有可尽食者，少数则需咀嚼消化。nJack neednt stay here，but George mustnJohn won the first race and Jim(won)the second.n3)省略形容词省

47、略形容词n相比较而言，英语中省略形容词来避免重复的情形，不如其他词类多。nRobert seemed angry，and George certainly was(angry)n4)省略从句省略从句nI did not notice it till too late(till it was too late)nl must get it done whatever the cost(whatever the cost may be)nHe gave the same answer as before(as he has given before)n为了回避词语的重复，人们通常采用以上这4种省略

48、手段。省略手段看似容易，因为有些内容可以略去不表，其实不然，能够做到正确地省略，说明一个人句子的运用能力已经达到纯熟的地步。有运用得当的省略句更能显示出学习者英语的规范性、地道性。避免重复是英语句子表达的一条原则。但是从词类的角度看，重复的多是名词、动词和形容词这些实词，而词义较抽象的代词、介词、助动词等虚词则不怕重复。这样看来，英语句子是“避实就虚”，而虚词的重复常常是为了避免实词的重复。4避免重复与避免中式英语避免重复与避免中式英语n避免重复这条原则对中国学生还有一层特殊的意义。受汉语表达习惯的影响，中国学生用英语表达思想时，常常不自觉地加上不必要的修饰语。这些修饰语虽然在汉语中也是重复(

49、如“毫无根据的捏造毫无根据的捏造”)，但是它们显得自然，符合汉语的表达习惯。可是，如果把这些修饰语也译成英语，效果就适得其反了，既累赘，又有失表达的准确。n例如：汉语中，我们可以说，“请给我们多提宝贵意见”，但是用英语表达时就不必说Please gives us your valuable opinions别人能提出意见、建议，我们肯定应该认为是宝贵的，再用valuable一词就是多余的，正确的说法应是Your opinions will be appreciatedn还有一个典型的例子，在表达“他的病情好多了”这一汉语句子时，中国学生往往说成His sick condition is muc

50、h better实际上，condition本身就表示“疾病”(sickness，illness)，所以句中的sick也是一种无意义的重复，地道的表达方法是 His condition is much better或者可以更简单地说 He is much bettern此外，在用英语表达汉语中的“吃饭”、“读书”、“唱歌”、“付钱”、“换车”这些动宾结构的概念时，中国学生往往把宾语表达出来，而实际上，英语的有些动词本身已经含有宾语所表示的意思，不言自明，一般是可以省略的，加上宾语则有可能形成画蛇添足，说出中国式的英语。现举例如下：nHave you heard(any news)from you