语言学导论)课件.ppt

1、语言学导论语言学导论 课程介绍课程介绍 教材教材 考试方式考试方式人类语言的主要特征人类语言的主要特征 语言的任意性（语言的任意性（arbitrariness）语言的语义性（语言的语义性（semanticity）语言的离散性（语言的离散性（discreteness）语言的双重性（语言的双重性（duality of patterning）语言的生成性语言的生成性（productivity）语言的置换性语言的置换性（displacement）索绪尔索绪尔(Saussure):声音形象声音形象 语言符号语言符号：-概念概念 任意性（符号的形式面和内容面不任意性（符号的形式面和内容面不存在任何理性关联

2、和逻辑动因存在任何理性关联和逻辑动因）符号的分类符号的分类 美国哲学家皮尔斯美国哲学家皮尔斯(Peirce,C.)根根据符号三要素（媒介、对象和解据符号三要素（媒介、对象和解释）的相互关系建立了释）的相互关系建立了“符号的符号的三合一分类方法三合一分类方法”，其核心类别，其核心类别有三种有三种：图像符号图像符号(icon)、标志符号、标志符号(index)和象征符号和象征符号(symbol)。象似性象似性 地图地图 标志性标志性 烟烟 象征性象征性 fish 语言的生成性语言的生成性(productivity)人可以通过使用数量有限的语法规则人可以通过使用数量有限的语法规则来对数量同样有限的词

3、汇排列组合，来对数量同样有限的词汇排列组合，生成数量无限的词组、短语和句子，生成数量无限的词组、短语和句子，即通过对数量有限的语言基本成分的即通过对数量有限的语言基本成分的排列组合来产生新的语言单位。排列组合来产生新的语言单位。语言学的研究领域语言学的研究领域1.句法学句法学2.语义学语义学3.形态学（语素学）形态学（语素学）4.语音学语音学5.音系学音系学语言学的研究领域（续）语言学的研究领域（续）6.语用学语用学7.社会语言学社会语言学8.历史语言学历史语言学9.心理语言学心理语言学 *语言习得语言习得 *神经语言学神经语言学 语言的定义语言的定义 美国人类学家美国人类学家Sapir(19

4、21)认为：认为：语言是人类的非本能的交际方式，通过有意语言是人类的非本能的交际方式，通过有意发出声音或写出语言符号等手段，来达到传发出声音或写出语言符号等手段，来达到传递思想、交流感情和满足欲望的目的。递思想、交流感情和满足欲望的目的。美国生成语言学家美国生成语言学家Chomsky(1957)：I-language,E-language语言习得理论（语言习得理论（Theories of first language acquisition）模仿假设模仿假设（Imitation hypothesis）：）：儿童学语言完全靠模仿。儿童学语言完全靠模仿。强化假设强化假设（Reinforcement

5、 hypothesis）:儿童学语言是通过儿童学语言是通过“正面正面”或或“反面反面”的强的强化刺激进行的。化刺激进行的。天赋假设天赋假设(Innateness Hypothesis):人生来就具有人生来就具有“语言习得机制语言习得机制”（language acquisition device,LAD)乔姆斯基（乔姆斯基（Chomsky）的）的语言学革命语言学革命语言习得中的逻辑问题（柏拉语言习得中的逻辑问题（柏拉图问题）图问题）1.语言知识到底是什么？语言知识到底是什么？2.语言知识是如何习得的？语言知识是如何习得的？3.语言知识是如何被使用的？语言知识是如何被使用的？原则与参数理论原则与参

6、数理论 Chomsky 认为人生来就具有认为人生来就具有“语言习得机制语言习得机制(LAD),即即LAD是人习得语言的先天因素，是是人习得语言的先天因素，是语言习得的初始阶段（语言习得的初始阶段（initial stage 或或State-0),其中数量有限的原则体系，规定具其中数量有限的原则体系，规定具体语言习得的范围。有了这种机制，人出生后体语言习得的范围。有了这种机制，人出生后通过与语言非常有限的接触（即语言暴露），通过与语言非常有限的接触（即语言暴露），有关原则就可以参数化成具体的语言规则，或有关原则就可以参数化成具体的语言规则，或由初始阶段成长成具体语言，即使一种由初始阶段成长成具体

7、语言，即使一种State-0L的过程。这就是的过程。这就是PPH假设假设(Principles-and-Parameters Hypothesis)。语音学与音系学语音学与音系学(Phonetics&Phonology)语音学与音系学语音学与音系学语音学：语音学：研究语音的发音方式和分析语音自 身的性质和特点。音系学：音系学：研究语音的心理基础单位即音位 (phoneme)以及用音位组合成语言 单位的规则和规律。发音器官发音器官语音特征语音特征 发音位置发音位置(place of articulation)发音方式发音方式(manner of articulation)气流通过口腔时受阻的程度

8、和位置 气流是否从鼻腔中流出 声带是否振动发音位置发音位置A:双唇音(bilabial):p as in peel b as in beer m as in meatB:唇齿音(labiodental):f as in feel v as in vealC:齿间音(interdental)as in thing as in thatD:齿龈音(alveolar)t as in tea d as in deal s as in seal z as in zeal n as in neck l as in luck r as in rockE:硬腭音(palatal)as in shoot as

9、in measure c as in check j as in judge j as in yeastF:软腭音(velar)k as in cool g as in goal as in thingG:声门音(glottal)h as in heat as in button in American English发音方式发音方式气流通过口腔时受阻的程度和位置气流通过口腔时受阻的程度和位置1.阻塞音（阻塞音（stop）2.鼻塞音（鼻塞音（(nasal)stop）3.摩擦音（摩擦音（fricative）4.塞擦音（塞擦音（affricate）气流是否从鼻腔中流出气流是否从鼻腔中流出+NASA

10、L-NASAL 声带是否振动声带是否振动+VOICE-VOICE辅音的描述示例辅音的描述示例b,m,fb=voiced bilabial(oral)stopm=voiced bilabial nasal(stop)f=voiceless labiodental fricative元音的描述元音的描述i I u U e o ahighmidlowfrontbackcentraltenselaxround元音描述示例元音描述示例i =High front tense unrounded u=High back tense roundeda=Low back unrounded区别特征区别特征(di

11、stinctive feature)和语音自然类和语音自然类(natural class)t,d,nt:voiceless alveolar oral stopd:voiced alveolar oral stopn:voiced alveolar nasal stop练习：练习：m,b特征的冗余现象特征的冗余现象 p +BILABIAL -VOICE *+CONSONANT *-NASAL m +BILABIAL +VOICE +NASAL上加成素上加成素(suprasegmentals):长度长度(length)语调语调(intonation)声调声调(tone)重音重音(pitch ac

12、cent)最小对立体语音组合特点最小对立体语音组合特点a.彼此的语音数量相等彼此的语音数量相等b.彼此的意义不同彼此的意义不同c.彼此之间仅存在一个语音的差异彼此之间仅存在一个语音的差异d.语音差异出现在同一个位置上语音差异出现在同一个位置上最小对立体最小对立体bit:pitsip:zip pat:bat:mat tip:disk 违反违反a规则规则 tap:taph 违反违反b规则规则 bit:bad 违反违反c规则规则 fat:tap 违反违反d规则规则 最小对立体（最小对立体（Minimal pair）bit bIt pit pItfeel fil fill fIl fail fel f

13、ell fEl音位分析的方法音位分析的方法 pray fresh gray regain crab shriek par tar broker音的分布音的分布列出语音环境 语音环境是否相同？互补分布 变音变音是否重合分布 词义是否相同？是 自由变体自由变体否 对比分布 音位音位形态学形态学 (morphology)通过分析形位的性质、形位兑现成语素通过分析形位的性质、形位兑现成语素的规律以及语素组合成词的状态来解析的规律以及语素组合成词的状态来解析词的内部结构。词的内部结构。形位形位(morpheme)形位形位(morpheme):最小的携带意义的语言单位最小的携带意义的语言单位 -The f

14、riends promised to inquire carefully about a schoolmaster for the fair Bianca.-compounds:jack-in-the-box looking glass girlfriend -The friend-s promis-ed to inquire care-ful-ly about a school-master for the fair Bianca.形位的类型形位的类型 自由形位自由形位(free morpheme)依附形位依附形位(bound morpheme)The friend-s promis-ed

15、to inquire care-ful-ly about a school-master for the fair Bianca.形位的类型形位的类型 内容形位（内容形位（content morpheme，lexical morpheme)promise,friend,fair,Bianca school-master 功能形位（功能形位（function morpheme，grmmatical morpheme）-s,-ed,-ly a,an,the,this,that to,about,for 依附形位的类型依附形位的类型-派生形位派生形位(derivational morpheme)(c

16、ountable,reproduce)-屈折形位屈折形位(inflectional morpheme)(promised,friends)英语的屈折形位英语的屈折形位-s third person singular present-edpast tense-ingprogressive-en past participle-splural-spossessive-ercomparative-est superlative英语形位分类图英语形位分类图 形位形位自由形位自由形位(boy)依附形位依附形位(-ish)屈折形位派生形位屈折形位派生形位 (-ed)(-ness)形位和语素形位和语素 形位

17、(morpheme)是抽象的语言单位，在语言使用过程中，可分别兑现成音素实体(phonetic substance)和文字实体(orthographic substance)，形成可感知的语素(morph)。形位和语素形位和语素-s,复数 books beds bushes 语音层面：语音层面：-s s,z,iz 拼写层面：拼写层面：-s -s,-es形位的界定形位的界定 同一分布位置同一分布位置 意义一致意义一致 多次出现多次出现 -ness:sadness,happiness,rudeness -re centre,cadre,reconnoitre cranberry cranapple

18、 remit,commit,submit receive,perceive,conceive 构词的层级结构构词的层级结构Infl ecti onalDeri vatio nalDeri vatio nalInfl ecti onal AffixAffixR RO O O OT TAffixAffixSTEM派生词构词的层级结构派生词构词的层级结构 同一派生形位往往依附在相同词性的词根上。同一派生形位往往依附在相同词性的词根上。同一派生形位加到词根上以后通常得到的词属同一派生形位加到词根上以后通常得到的词属相同词性。相同词性。adjustable,breakable,comparable,de

19、batable (*preexist,predawn,prehistoric)派生词构词的层级结构派生词构词的层级结构 unusable un+use+able unuse+able un+usable 形容词 形容词 un use able 歧义歧义 unlockable unlock+able un+lockableRoots（词根）（词根）basic word forms that can stand alone-cannot be analyzed into smaller parts antidisestablishmentarianism 词缀（词缀（affix)Affix:The

20、 general term for morphemes attached to a word.四种词缀四种词缀Prefix(前缀）前缀）Infix（中缀）（中缀）Suffix（后缀）（后缀）Circumfix（环缀（环缀?）句法学句法学(Syntax)句法学研究的范围句法学研究的范围句法学：研究组词造句的规则或规律。句法学：研究组词造句的规则或规律。他很喜欢吃肉。他很喜欢吃肉。肉他很喜欢吃。肉他很喜欢吃。*吃肉很他喜欢。吃肉很他喜欢。形态学形态学 (词词)句法学句法学 (句子句子)篇章分析篇章分析(篇章篇章)乔姆斯基对句法学的贡献乔姆斯基对句法学的贡献(1)通过有限的规则生成无限的句子。通过有

21、限的规则生成无限的句子。(William Humboldt)递归函数递归函数SNP+VPVPV,VPV+NP,VPV+CP,VPV+NP+CP CP S,CP C+S乔姆斯基对句法学的贡献乔姆斯基对句法学的贡献(1)词库（词库（lexicon)NP:Mary,Bill,JohnVerb:believe,like，thinkC:that Mary likes Bill.John thinks that Mary likes Bill.Bill thinks that John thinks that Mary likes Bill.句法研究范围句法研究范围短语结构规则短语结构规则(phrase

22、structure rules)SNP+VPVPV,VPV+NPShe likes the dress.*Likes the dress.树形图能够标志：树形图能够标志：句法成分句法成分（constituency）统领关系统领关系（dominance relations）前后关系前后关系（precedence relations）姐妹关系姐妹关系（sisterhood relations）乔姆斯基对句法学的贡献乔姆斯基对句法学的贡献(2)John1s mother loves him1,2.Johnis mother loves himi,j.*Hei loves Johnis mother.

23、Hisi,mother loves Johni.结构歧义结构歧义NPVNPPNPthe detcowNNpattackedV the detmanN NpwithPthedetgunNNPattacked the man with the gunNPVPthe detcowNNpVPSNPPPPVPattacked VVNPthedetmanNNpwithPthe detgunNNpPPVPNPPPPVPattacked VVNPthedetmanNwithPthe detgunNNpPPVPNp短语类别短语类别The committee banned _.books.the books.co

24、ntroversial books.the controversial books.the controversial books in the library the controversial books that the student checked out of the library.Noun Phrase Type:Noun Phrase(NP)Some children _.snoredhave gone.love musicwalked the dog through the park.dashed to the store.Verb Phrase Type:Verb Phr

25、ase(VP)she gave the book to me the dog is in the yard a book with a red cover (complex)I saw her in front of the store the cat pushed the toy out of the box Preposition Phrase Type:Prepositional Phrase(PP)XPX+YP 中心语（中心语（head)DP AP PP NP VP CP词序类型词序类型SOV SVO VSO VOS 自由词序转换规则转换规则移动规则移动规则Mary will like

26、 the dress.What will Mary like?*What will Mary like the dress?解释规则解释规则Johni thinks that hei,j likes Mary.*Johni thinks that this fooli,likes Mary.限制限制(constraints)He thinks(that)Mary likes the dress.What does he think(that)Mary likes?Who does he think _ likes the dress?*Who does he think that _ like

27、s the dress?S NP VP V NP Johnis mother loves himi,j.S NP VP V NP *Hei loves Johnis mother.S NP VP V NP Hisi,mother loves Johni.否定极性词否定极性词1)a.*John saw anything.b.John never saw anything.2)a.*Mary said anything.b.Nobody said anything.(3)a.The elves did not tell anyone that the fairies could like witc

28、hcraft.b.*The elves told anyone that the fairies could not like witchcraft.(4)a.The news that Shylock left did not surprise anybody.b.*The news that Shylock did not leave surprised anybody.限制限制(constraints)You saw a picture of John.Who did you see a picture of _?A picture of John disturbed you.*Who

29、did a picture of _ disturbed you?Mary likes the dress.the dress that Mary likes _.the dress John thinks(that)Mary likes _ the woman John thinks _ likes the dress *the woman John thinks that _ likes the dress the man that you saw a picture of _ *the man that a picture of _ disturbed you格选择格选择(C-selec

30、tion)和语义选择和语义选择(S-selection)*The moat surrounds*The moat surrounds two minutesa.*The witches stirred the tree.The witches stirred the broth.b.*Shylock died Bassanio.Shylock died.c.*Portia ate that mercy is admirable.Portia ate the appled.*Kate should angry at Petruccio Kate should be angry at Petruc

31、cioe.*The lords made The lords made their beds.语义学语义学 涵义涵义(Sense)指称指称(Reference)Morning Star is the Evening Star.Morning Star is the Morning Star.意义意义词的意义词的意义|词组的意义词组的意义|句子的意义句子的意义|言语言语(utterance)的意义的意义参与者角色（题元角色）参与者角色（题元角色）施事施事(Agent)受事受事(Theme)目标目标(Goal)方位方位(location)经验者经验者(Experiencer)来源来源(source

32、)受益者受益者(benefactive)Beckham kicked the ball.Agent Predicate Theme Agent Beckham Theme the ball Agent Carmen browsed the webpage.AGENT THEME Angie took the book.AGENT THEME Theme The ball rolls.THEMEExperiencer and Benefactive Experiencer The students love syntax.EXPERIENCER THEME Benefactive Tony ga

33、ve Carmen a pencil.AGENT BENEFACTIVE THEMEGoal,Location and Source Goal Beckham kicked the ball into the goal.AGENT THEME GOALLocation He is in Hong Kong.THEME LOCATIONSource Ann borrowed the book from the library.AGENT THEME SOURCE练习练习Peter told the story to his friends.Mary heard the cry.The book

34、is on the desk.主语与参与者角色的对应主语与参与者角色的对应 施事施事 受事受事/受益者受益者 工具工具 场所场所 Pete brokethe computer.agenttheme The computer broke.theme Pete atethe chicken.agenttheme The chicken ate.agent/*theme句子意义之间的关系句子意义之间的关系蕴含（蕴含（Entailment）如果如果A为真，为真，B一定为真一定为真.A:Rodney talked to Paul and Sally.B:Rodney talked to Paul.A:M

35、ost linguists are vegetarians.B:At least one linguist is a vegetarian.预设预设(presupposition)要判断要判断 A是否为真，必须先假定是否为真，必须先假定B为真。为真。A:Rodney has quit smoking.B:Rodney smoked before.A:Rodney went to Philadelphia again.B:Rodney had been to Philadelphia before.预设预设(presupposition)(1)Polonius quit biting his n

36、ails Presupposes:Polonius used to bite his nails Asserts:Polonius stopped biting his nails(2)Polonius didnt quit biting his nails Presupposes:Polonius used to bite his nails Asserts:He still does!regret,quit Lear regretted yelling at Goneril Lear didnt regret yelling at Goneril Both presuppose:Lear

37、yelled at Goneril the The Prince of Denmark is(nt)crazy Presupposes:There is a Prince of Denmark The French king is bald.It was yesterday that he flew to London.He flew to London.Q:如何区分预设与蕴含如何区分预设与蕴含?A:Rodney hasnt quit smoking.B:Rodney smoked before.A:Rodney didnt go to Philadelphia again.B:Rodney

38、had been to Philadelphia before.A:Rodney didnt talked to Paul and Sally.B:Rodney talked to Paul.(Could be true or false)A:Its not true that most professors are vegetarian.B:At least one professor is a vegetarian.(Could be true or false)含义含义(implicature)-“Is Sandy a good cook?”-“Well,Sandy has many c

39、ookbooks.”-Are you going to the party tonight?-Well,I have an exam tomorrow.否定极性词否定极性词(NPI)No teenagers ever drink prune juice Few teenagers ever drink prune juice Less than 3 people ever drink prune juice.向下蕴含向下蕴含 VP1VP2,D NP VP2 蕴含 D NP VP1(11)owns a blue carowns a car No physicist owns a car.No p

40、hysicist owns a blue car.John didnt eat green vegetables.John didnt eat kale.练习练习at most twoeverysome向上蕴含向上蕴含*Every juggler has ever been to Hawaii.*Some friend of yours left yet.语用原则语用原则 1.Be truthful.2.Dont be less informative than required.A:I need to send Susanne a postcard.Do you know where she

41、 lives?B:She lives in Germany./3.Dont be more informative than required.A:Susannes English sounds a bit funny.I wonder where She is from.B:She is from 113 Wilhemstrasse,72074,Tuebingen,Germany.4.Be relevant.A:Are there any gas stations around here?B:Yes,there are.Wernickes aphasiaBrocas aphasia布洛卡失语

42、症（布洛卡失语症（Brocas Aphasia）韦尼克失语症韦尼克失语症(Wernickes Aphasia)Left hemisphere=verbalRight hemisphere=spatial方法方法Electromagnetic techniqueselectroencephalography(EEG)magnetoencephalography(MEG)Blood flow techniquesPositron emission tomography(PET)Functional magnetic resonance imaging(fMRI)语言接触的一些特殊形式语言接触的一些

43、特殊形式“洋泾浜洋泾浜”“洋泾浜洋泾浜”（Pidgin）又译）又译“皮钦皮钦语语”、“皮琴语皮琴语”，是十七世纪以，是十七世纪以后在殖民地、半殖民地的通商口岸后在殖民地、半殖民地的通商口岸常见的一种语言现象。常见的一种语言现象。洋泾浜的共同特点洋泾浜的共同特点 1）词汇量很小词汇量很小2）音位数量少音位数量少3）语法规则减少到最低限度语法规则减少到最低限度4）许多事物用迂回的比喻描画方式、用许多事物用迂回的比喻描画方式、用词组甚至句子来表达词组甚至句子来表达混合语混合语 克里奥耳语最初的语言形态与洋泾浜完克里奥耳语最初的语言形态与洋泾浜完全相同，全相同，两者的区别在于克里奥耳作为两者的区别在于

44、克里奥耳作为母语传递给下一代，已成为某个语言社母语传递给下一代，已成为某个语言社团唯一的交际语。团唯一的交际语。形态学练习形态学练习 1.分析下列词的形位并说出这些形位分析下列词的形位并说出这些形位的类型的类型:unduly,governmental,blackboards,unrelated,ran 2.请用树形图表示下列词的结构请用树形图表示下列词的结构:unconditional,dissatisfaction语音学与音系学练习语音学与音系学练习练习练习2在下列词中选出所有带在下列词中选出所有带bilabial nasal的词：的词：beg shoes mill joker lamp g

45、host cure练习练习3 音系规则？音系规则？English past tense formation:-(e)d pronounced as d:play-ed ple(j)d pull-ed pUld fear-ed fI(c)rd rob-bed rabd live-d lIvd pronounced as cd need-ed nidcd putt-ed pctcd want-ed wantcd pronounced as t:wash-ed wat watch-ed wa.t miss-ed mIst sip-ped sIpt句法练习句法练习 画出以下句子的树形图并解释这个画出以下句子的树形图并解释这个句子不合语法的原因。句子不合语法的原因。*You showed herselfi some pictures of Opheliai.语义学练习语义学练习 请说出下列句子中划线部分所担任的语义请说出下列句子中划线部分所担任的语义 角色：角色：1.The lecturer teaches the students syntax.2.They like syntax.