1、.新编语言学教程 刘润清 文旭.Chapter One Linguistics Definition Linguistics differs from other sciences in that it both uses languages as the tool and takes languages as its object to study.3.Philology Linguistics (语文学） （语言学）In the mid of 19thF.De Saussure (the founder of general linguistics）.4. Linguistic study
2、 (1) diachronic study 历时性学习 Study the development of language in the course of time. 研究语言在不同时期的特点。 (2) synchronic study 共时性学习 Study linguistics at a particular point of time (given linguistic status or stage of a particular language) 研究语言在同一时期的不同阶段。 . linguistic study: primary synchronic study 研究语言难
3、在： language is always changing people in the same speech community do not say the same language features of a language, cant be replaced quickly and completely.Scope of linguistics: Phonetics Phonology Morphology Microlinguistics Syntax Semantics Pragmatics SociolinguisticsMacrolinguistics Psycholin
4、guistics Stylistics.5. Langue Parole langue 语言 parole 言语 a set of rules or conventions an abstract linguistic system in every speakers mind not actually spokene. relatively stable Actual spoken Specific (concrete) situational the use of the rules or conventions Parole is the realization of the langu
5、e.6. Language competence language performance LAD innate (capacity/intuitive to acquire language)experience Grammar (for a particular language) competence performance isnt innateworking like a machineAs.Material product. competence (Grammar) is equal to everybody ideal knowledge of language user per
6、formance isnt equal to everybody influenced by psychological and social factors. Performance is the realization of the knowledge Knowledge is the essence of the competence Behavior is the essence of the performance Communicative Competence-Hymes.7. prescriptivism & descriptivismPrescriptivism: Set d
7、own a kind of form, admit one dialect or variety is more superior than another. Form grammar, pronunciation, lexicon. Regulate people how to actually use language. How things should be. Language policeDescriptivism: Language is live, changing. If one of language is expressive, logical, then it is a
8、good language.b) observer/ recorder/ of language how things actually be/ what people actually say.Chapter Two Language Definition of language : a set of rules (eg. Syntactic rules)A well-organized systemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsUsed for human communication: there is no logical and intrinsic connection
9、 between objects and symbols.: the sound, spoken language, most important medium.: people use it to represent objects, ideas, opinions or actions.: human specific (人类特有 ）.2. Design features of language Arbitrariness Productivity Duality Displacement Cultural transmission Specialization(1)interchange
10、ability.3. Social functions of language Communicative means (the most important one) The means for conceptual thinking and recognition of the world.(3) The vehicle and transmitter of culture. language is cultural-dependant language mirrors culture.4. Functions of language in communication Phatic Dir
11、ective function Informative function Expressive function Interrogative function Evocative function(1) Performative function.Chapter Three Phonetics: sound of language Definition of phonetics: The scientific study of speech sounds, which are used by all human languages or by a particular language to
12、represent meanings. Branches: (1) articulatory phonetics (发音（声）语音学) ：The study of the production of the sound. (2) accustic phonetics (声学语音学）：concerned with physical properties of these sounds.(3) Auditory phonetics (听觉语音学）:concerned with the reception/ perception of the hearer.3. International Phon
13、etics Association (IPA) International Phonetics Alphabet (IPA) 国际音标 .Bilabials /p/ /b/ /m/ /w/ Labiodentals /f/ /v/Alveolars /d/ /t/ /s/ /z/ /n/ /r/ /l/Velars /g/ /k/ /Interdentals / /Glottals /h/ Palatals / / /t/ /d/ /j/.Vowels approximants(延续音） non-continuants continuants = = glides liquids stops/
14、plosive affricates fricatives w l = t s f j r nasal oral d z v h m p k t n b g d sibilants (hissing) sonorants obstruents (阻塞音） (voiced)响声 .PalatalVoicedfricativez alveolar voiced fricativef fricative voiceless obstruent labiodentals w glide approximant sonorant voiced labiovelars.Vowels The height
15、of the tongue high vowels, mid vowels, low vowels The position of the tongue front vowels, central vowels, back vowels lip-rounding unrounded vowels, rounded vowels Tenseness of the tongue tense vowels, lax vowels.Rounded vowels: /u:/ /u/ /ou/ /:/ / /Unrounded vowels: /i:/ /i/ /e/ /ei/ / /:/ / /Tens
16、e vowels: /i:/ /u:/ /ei/ /ou/ /a:/ /:/ /:/ Lax vowels: /i/ /u/ /e/ / / / / / / .Chapter Four Phonology1. Definition: the science or the scientific study of the system and the patterns of the speech sounds of languages.2. Phonetics(语音学）：how the sounds produced, transmitted, received.3. Phonemes(音位）：s
17、peech sound segments that can distinguish or contrast words in sound and meaning are called phonems. .Phone: (音素）a phone is a phonetic unit or segment in the phonetically realization of a phoneme. ph 2 versions of one phoneme /p/Phones 2 realization of one phoneme p= The number of allophones (音位变体）i
18、s limited.Allophones: The different phones which represent or derive from one phoneme are called the allophones of that phoneme.一个音位的不同变化形式 音位变体每一个可以读出的音叫做音素。一个音如果没有读出叫做音位。4. Phonetic representation 语音表达 phonemic representation 音位表达 Phonetic representation：of utterances shows what the speakers know
19、about the pronunciation of utterances.Phonemic representation: of the utterances shows what the Speakers know about the abstract or underlying phonemic representation of words.5. Minimal pair: when two different words are identical in every way except for one phoneme which occurs in the same place,
20、they are said to form a minimal pair.6. Free variations: the different pronunciations of one word are called free variations.7. Complementary distribution: when two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution.8.
21、Syllables (音节）:a syllable is the smallest structured sound unit made up of a rule-governed sequence of phonemes. peak 音节峰 peakSyllable onset 节前辅音 kn coda 音节尾 onset coda.closed syllable: with a codaopen syllable: without a coda If a word begins with a /L/ /r/, it must be followed by a vowel.2. / cant
22、 be the first phoneme of the word. eg. /ik/3. / / / / /e/ /u/ lax vowels cant end a syllable 有多少个元音就有多少音节。4. sonority scale 响音节.most sonorious 5 vowel 4 approximant 3 nasals 2 fricatives 1 oral stops / plosivesleast sonorious5. onset peak coda CCC V CCCCeg. spring spri eg. sixths sikss./p/ +consonan
23、t +alveolar/k/ -voiced /s/ +fricative /t/ +stop +consonantal -vocalic +sibilant -vocalic +voiced.Chapter Five Morphology1. word: is the smallest meaningful unit which can be used independently.(1) 词汇的语法单位 sentence clause phrase word morpheme.(2) Features of words stability relative uninterruptabilit
24、y minimal free form(3) Classification of words open class: whose membership is not limited, fixed, can be regularly expanded. Eg. Nouns, verbs, adjectives. closed class: they cant easily expand their new membership. eg. Conj, pron. Num, articles. Variable words: ordered and regular series of grammat
25、ical forms. Eg. study-studying-studied-studies Invariable words: those which have no inflective endings. eg. Seldom/ always/ often grammatical words (function words) 虚词：express grammatical meanings. Eg. Conj, pron, prep lexical words (content words) 实词：express lexical meanings. Eg. Nouns, verbs, adj
26、.,adv. .(4) Word class new classes particles 小品词，助词 to-infinitive marker 不定式符号 not-negative marker 否定符号 subordinate: unit of a verbal phrase. Eg. Go on auxiliaries 助动词 will, do, have, had a) inversion form b) negative formAuxiliaries are different from verbEg. Will -will not verb dont. proform 代词形式，
27、替代形式 pro-adjectives 代形容词，pro-verb, pro-adverb, pro-locative 代方位词 eg. My shoes is black, so is hers. He studies better than I do. He hopes the exam will be canceled, I hope so. The broom is there, in the corner.Proform: a word can take the place of certain words. determiners 限定词 pre-determiners 前限定词：
28、all, both, half, twice, 3 times central-determiners 中限定词：a, the, this, that, these, those post-determiners 后限定词：ordinal numerals, 序列词 general ordinals序数词.Determiners: refers to the words which can be used to modify the head noun of a noun phrase.2. Morphology Definition Morpheme: is the smallest mea
29、ningful linguistic unit. Morph: each of the phonetic forms or variants is a morph. allomorph 1. in complementary distribution features 2. have the same/common meaning 3. occur in parallel formation hold the same position /s/ (morpheme) allomorph : /-z/ /-s/ /-iz/ /-ai-/ / -i:-/ morph morph morph mor
30、ph .Types of morpheme Free morpheme (root) 自由语素：usually carries the basical meaning, can stand by itself as a word. Bound morpheme (affix)黏着语素：it always be a part of a word.Free morphemes can be divided into two categories:Lexical morphemes: the set of ordinary nouns, verbs and adjectives which carr
31、y the content of messages we convey. Eg. Book, desk, happy2. Functional morphemes: consists of the functional words in the language such as conj., articles, prep and pron. Eg. If, when, on, above.Bound morphemes are actually affixes.Affix: prefix: affixes can be joined to the beginning of the root o
32、r stem. Eg. Im- impossible, un- unlucky infix: morphemes that are inserted into other morphemes. Eg. um- sulat-sumulat suffix: affixes can be joined to the end of the root or stem. Eg. Kind-kindness, teach-teacher.3. Word formation Stem eg. Friendships root suffix stem distempered root suffix stemMo
33、nomorphenic 单语素中 stem=root eg: song.stem is the part that is left after removing all the inflectional morphemes.root is the part which is left after all the affixes are removed inflectional affixes derivational affixes (2) Ways of word formation Derivation 派生法（衍生法）：is a way to add affixes to root or
34、 stem to form new words. prefix derivative 衍生词 infix eg. understand-understandable suffix happy-unhappy . Word class unchanged un- happy-unhappy dis- like-dislikeb) Word class changed verb-noun n-verb -er / -or/ -ize /-fy compounding Compounds made up of same category n + n - bookstore adj. + adj. -
35、 white-hot red-hot prep. + prep. - into within onto uponb) Compounds made up of different category.Part of speech of the compound falls to the 2nd element. eg. Scarecrow 稻草人 n. v. n.Part of speech of the compound falls to 1st element. eg. Brother-in law passer-by looker-onc) The grammatical relation
36、ship between the elements of a compound. 1. coordinative 并列的 bookstore, deaf-mute, classroom 2. qualifier-head 偏正的 reading-room, snow-white 3. subject-predicate 主谓的 man-made, sunrise, spoon-feed 4. verb + object 动宾的 callgirl, playboy.d) Spelling of compounds 1. there is no space. Eg. Football 2. the
37、re is a hyphen. Eg. Snow-white 3. there is a space. Eg. Red-light district meaning of the compounds isnt the sum of the meaning of all the elements. Eg. red-meat 牛肉，羊肉 white-lie 善意的谎言 Red-cap 空宪兵 blue-stocking 清高女子 Blue-blood 贵族血统 white elephant 大而不实用东西 Jack Robinson 平常人. conversion: is the way in w
38、hich we get new words by changing their parts of speech. abbreviation (shortening of clipping) : is the way to make a word shortened or clipped. 1. cut the final part. Eg. Photo-photograph 2. cut the initial part. Eg. Airplane-plane 3. cut both the initial and the final part eg. Influenza-flu refrig
39、erator-fridge Back formation eg. To burgle (from burglar) to beg (from beggar) to edit (from editor) to laze (from lazy). sentence-condensation eg. touch-me-not stay-at-home forget-me-not blending 1. initial part of 1st + final part of 2nd eg. Motel, smog, botle 2. initial part of two words eg. Digi
40、com digital computer telex teleprinter exchanger initialism: some new words are composed of the first letters of a series of words and pronounced by saying each letter in them. Eg. CD, ATM. Acronym: some new words are formed from the first letters of a series of words. They pronounced as single word
41、s. eg. Laser (lightwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) .Chapter six syntax: structure of sentencesSyntax: is a part of the grammar of a language, dealing with the structures of sentences and the rules governing them. Parts of speech/ word class/ form class a) words belong to the
42、same parts of speech have some differences. b) one word can belong to different parts of speech. c) Noun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, pronoun, conjuction.(2) How to judge parts of speech a) accord to meaning b) distribution position in a sentence c) inflection(3) Grammatical category: gram
43、matical meanings can be classified into different categories, called grammatical categories. In other words, a grammatical category is the classification of grammatical meanings. The commonly found grammatical categories are person, number, gender case, tense, aspect, voice, mood and so on. Person t
44、he first person, the second person, the third person the distinction between the three persons may be made by appropriate subjective pronouns.2. Number singular + plural3. Gender masculine + feminine + neuter4. Case nominative 主格 which marks the subject of the sentence accusative 宾格 which marks the
45、object of a transitive verb dative 与格which marks the indirect object ablative 离格 which marks the instrument with which sth is done. genitive 所有格 which marks the possession vocative 呼格 which is the case of addressEg. Madam, I wanted to get him the girls book with the card. vocative nominative dative
46、genitive accusative ablativeHow to change case? Inflectional ending. Eg. teacher - teachers Distribution/ position. Word order eg. John bite John. John bite Tom.3. According to the verb and preposition eg. Ill go with the boy. .5. Tense past present future6. Aspect perfect progressive non-progressiv
47、e verb= stative verb eg. Know, hate, love, believe, have7. Voice active voice + passive voice passivization: a) the active subject passive agent b) the active object passive subject c) the prep. “by” is introduced before the agent.8. Mood imperative indicative subjunctive2. Syntagmatic rules A sente
48、nce is formed according to phonological, morphological, syntactic and semantic rules.Phonological rules: used to form meaningful morphemes.Morphological rules: used to conjoin morphemes into words.Syntactic rules: used to form phrases, clauses and sentences.Semantic rules: applied to the making of m
49、eaningful sentences. Combination of morphemes into words compounding, derivation, abbreviation, back-formation,blending, sentence-condensation, acronymization, conversionb) Basic pattern of combination of words subject-predicate 主谓 verb-object 动宾 verb-complement 动补 coordinative 并列 modifier-head 偏正（2
50、）constituent structure.ICA or IC analysisICA (immediate constituent analysis)Definition: a sentence can be segmented into the smallest meaningful linguistic units, such a method of cutting sentences or words into their meaningful component parts is called ICA.IC (immediate constituent): the componen
