1、The Practice ofSocial Research社会研究方法 Earl Babbie（艾尔巴比）Chapman UniversityPart 1An Introduction to Inquiry研究概论Chapter 1Human Inquiry and Science人类研究与科学Chapter OutlineLooking for Reality 寻求真实The Foundations of Social Science社会研究的基础Some Dialectics of Social Research社会研究中的一些辩证关系The Ethics of Social Resea
2、rch社会研究的伦理How We Know What We Know（我们如何形成对世界的认知）Direct Experience and Observation个人体验与观察Personal Inquiry 个人研究Tradition 传统（约定俗成的知识）Authority 权威Looking for Reality 寻求真实Our attempts to learn about the world are only partly linked to direct, personal inquiry or experience.我们对世界的认识和了解，只有部分来自于个人研究或经验。A la
3、rger part comes from agreed-on knowledge that others give us, things “everyone knows.” 大部分来自于别人告知的约定俗成的知识。This agreement reality both assists and hinders our attempts to find out for ourselves.这些约定俗成的真实，既可能帮助也可能阻碍我们亲手去发掘真实。Sources of Secondhand KnowledgeBoth provide a starting point for inquiry, but
4、 can lead us to start at the wrong point and push us in the wrong direction.二手知识既给我们提供了研究的起点（站在巨人的肩上），但也可能误导我们（错误的起点、错误的方向）1.Tradition 传统2.Authority 权威Science and Inquiry科学与研究Epistemology is the science of knowing.认识论是认识的科学Methodology (a subfield of epistemology) might be called the science of findi
5、ng out. 方法论（认识论的一支）或许可以称为寻找解答的科学QuestionHow do individuals learn all they need to know?A.personal experience 个人体验B.Discovery 探究发现C.from what others tell us 别人说的D.all of these choices 以上都是Answer: DIndividuals learn all they need to know from personal experience, discovery and from what others tell us
6、.个体通过个人体验、主动探究发现和别人告知的，来获取所需的知识Ordinary Human Inquiry一般的人类研究Humans recognize that future circumstances are caused by present ones.首先，人们认识到，未来的环境多少是由现在的状况造成的。Humans learn that patterns of cause and effect are probabilistic in nature. 其次，人类知道因果关系牵涉到概率问题Humans aim to answer “what” and “why” questions,
7、and pursue these goals by observing and figuring out. 人类研究的目的在于回答“是什么”和“为什么”，通过观察和推理来达到目标。Inquiry: Errors and Solutions研究中常见的错误及解决办法1.Inaccurate observations 不确切观察Measurement devices add precision.测量手段增加了准确性2.Overgeneralization 过度概括化Enough cases 足够样本观察Repeat a study to make sure the same results are
8、 produced each time.重复进行同一项研究，看是否每次都得到同样结果3.Selective observation 选择性观察Make an effort to find cases that do not fit the general pattern.找出不符合一般情形的异常案例4.Illogical Reasoning 非逻辑推理Use systems of logic explicitly.有意识地运用逻辑体系来避免这样的情形Inquiry: Errors and Solutions研究中常见的错误及解决办法Views of Reality 对真实的看法Premoder
9、n - Things are as they seem to be. 前现代观点：眼见为实Modern - Acknowledgment of human subjectivity.现代观点：仁者见仁智者见智Postmodern -There is no objective reality to be observed. 后现代观点：没什么真实的世界可供观察。所有的真实，都源于自我观点中的想象。A Book 一本书All of these are the same book, but it looks different when viewed from different locations
10、, perspectives, or “points of view.” 这些都是同一本书。但放置的位置、视角不同或人们观点不同，他看起来就不一样。Point of ViewWifes Point of View. There is no question in the wifes mind as to who is right and rational and who is out of control. 在妻子看来，谁是正确、理智的，以及谁失去了理智，是显而易见的。Point of ViewHusbands Point of View. The husband has a very dif
11、ferent perception of the same set of events, of course.丈夫的视角。对同一件事，他的看法截然不同。QuestionIn your discussion of measurement with a friend, she argues that what you are trying to measure does not exist and your own point of view will determine what you perceive in measuring. She has which view of reality?
12、A.correctB.premodernC.modernD.postmodernE.ScientificAnswer: DIn your discussion of measurement with a friend, she argues that what you are trying to measure does not exist and your own point of view will determine what you perceive in measuring. She has the postmodern view of reality. 后现代的观点Question
13、Youve gotten As on the last three tests. You have a research project due the last day of class and youre sure youre going to flunk because something has to break this streak of good luck. Youve fallen prey to:A.illogical reasoning.B.inaccurate observation.C.selective observation.D.over-emphasis on t
14、radition.E.overgeneralization.Answer: AYouve gotten As on the last three tests. You have a research project due the last day of class and youre sure youre going to flunk because something has to break this streak of good luck. Youve fallen prey to illogical reasoning.Foundations of Social Science 社会
15、科学的基础The foundations of social science are logic and observation. 社会科学的基础是逻辑和观察A scientific understanding of the world must make sense and correspond to what we observe.科学对世界的理解，必须言之成理，并且符合我们的观察。Both are essential to science and relate to the three major aspects of social scientific enterprise: theo
16、ry, data collection, and data analysis.这两者对科学都不可或缺，而且与科学研究的三大层面密切相关，理论、资料收集和资料分析。Foundations of Social Science 社会科学的基础Theory - Systematic explanation for the observations that relate to a particular aspect of life. 理论旨在系统地解释对生活中某一方面的观察Data collection - observation 资料搜集旨在整理观察的结果Data Analysis - the co
17、mparison of what is logically expected with what is actually observed. 资料分析，是比较逻辑预期和实际观察，寻找可能的模式。Social Regularities 社会规律Examples of Patterns in social life:社会生活的规范Only people 18 and older can vote.只有18岁以上的人的可以投票Only people with a license can drive.只有18岁以上且有执照的人可以开车Aggregates 总体而非个体The collective ac
18、tions and situations of many individuals. 集体行为和许多个人的状况 社会科学处理的是集体而非个体的行为Focus of social science is to explain why aggregated patterns of behavior are regular even when individuals change over time 社会科学的目的在于解释为什么即使个体行为随着时间改变，集体行为的模式却有规律可循。Birthrates,United States: 1980 20021982 15.9198315.6198415.619
19、8515.8198615.6198715.7198816.0198916.4199016.7199116.2199215.8199315.4199415.0199514.6199614.4199714.2199814.3199914.2200014.4200114.1200213.9QuestionSocial research aims to find _ in social life.A.answersB.knowledgeC.practicalityD.regularityE.truthAnswer: DSocial research aims to find regularity in
20、 social life.社会研究旨在发现社会生活的规律。A Variable LanguageVariableLogical groupings of attributes.AttributeCharacteristics or qualities that describe an object. A Variable Language 变量语言Independent variable 自变量自变量A variable that is presumed to cause or determine a dependent variable. 被假定的影响或决定因变量的变量。Dependent
21、variable 因变量因变量A variable that is assumed to depend on or is caused by another variable. 依赖于或被其他变量所决定的变量。Variable Language 变量语言Relationship Between Two Variables 两个变量之间的关系Education and Racial Prejudice 教育与种族偏见Level of Education % saying African-Americans have less inborn ability to learn Less than h
22、igh school graduate26%High school graduate10%Junior college15%Bachelors degree6%Graduate degree3%QuestionProfessor Fremler examined the following categories of marital status: married, never married, widowed, separated, and divorced. These categories are known asA.variables. 变量B.attributes. 属性C.vari
23、able categories. 变量类别D.units of analysis. 分析单元E.theoretical elements. 理论元素Answer: BProfessor Fremler examined the following categories of marital status: married, never married, widowed, separated, and divorced. These categories are known as attributes.（属性）Approaches to Social Research 社会研究的方法（1）Idi
24、ographic -Seeks to fully understand the causes of what happened in a single instance. 个案式解释：试图穷尽某个特定情形或是事件的所有原因NomotheticSeeks to explain a class of situations or events rather than a single one. 通则式解释：寻求解释某一类情形或者事件，而不仅是为了解释个案。Idiographic and Nomothetic Reasoning in Everyday Life日常生活中的个案式和通则式推理Idiog
25、raphic: “Hes like that because his father and mother kept giving him mixed signals. The fact that his family moved seven times by the time he was 12 years old didnt help. Moreover, his older brother is exactly the same and probably served as a role model.”Nomothetic:“Teenage boys are like that.” App
26、roaches to Social Research 社会研究的方法（2）Induction From specific observations to the discovery of a pattern among all the given events. 归纳：从个别到一般Deduction - From a pattern that might be logically expected to observations that test whether the pattern occurs. 演绎：从一般到个别，即从逻辑或理论上预期的模式，到观察检验预期的模式是否存在。The Wh
27、eel of Science 科学轮Approaches to Social Research 社会研究的方法（3）Qualitative Data Nonnumerical data.定性资料：非数据化资料Quantitative Data -Numerical data. Makes observations more explicit and makes it easier to aggregate, compare, and summarize data.定性资料：数据化资料。定量化使得我们的观察更加明确，也更容易将资料整合、对比或得出结论。Approaches to Social R
28、esearch 社会研究的方法（4）Pure Research - Sometimes justified in terms of gaining “knowledge for knowledges sake.” 纯粹研究：以寻求“纯粹的知识”而获得正当性Applied Research Putting research into practice. 应用研究：将研究应用于实践Ethical Guidelines of Social Research 社会研究中的伦理Two Basic Guidelines: 两条基本原则Participation should be voluntary. 参
29、与者必须出于自愿。Social research must bring no harm to research subjects.社会研究必须对参与研究的人无害。Quick Quiz1. The two foundations of science areA.tradition and observation.B.observation and logic.C.logic and theory.D.theory and observation.E.logic and generalization.Answer: BThe two foundations of science are obser
30、vation and logic.2. Science A.deals with what should be and not with what is.B.can settle debates on value.C.is exclusively descriptive.D.has to do with disproving philosophical beliefs.E.has to do with how things are and why.Answer: EScience has to do with how things are and why.3. When social scie
31、ntists study variables, they focus onA.attributes.B.groups.C.people.D.characteristics.E.relationships.Answer: EWhen social scientists study variables, they focus on relationships.4. _ is the science of knowing.A.intelligenceB.exam takingC.epistemologyD.methodologyAnswer: C Epistemology is the scienc
32、e of knowing.5. Which of the following are true of tradition and authority?A.they both assist human inquiryB.they both hinder human inquiryC.both a and bD.none of these choicesAnswer: CWhich of the following are true of tradition and authority: they both assist human inquiry and they both hinder human inquiry.6. _ explanations seek to exhaust the idiosyncratic causes of a particular condition or event.A.idiographicB.latentC.manifestD.nomotheticAnswer: A Idiographic explanations seek to exhaust the idiosyncratic causes of a particular condition or event.
