1、Apoptosis and the regulation-life or death decisionScience 298:526,20022002 Nobelfor their discoveries concerning genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death.75岁的布勒呐(Sydney Brenner)1953年年4月,在月,在J.Waston和和F.Crick著名的著名的DNA结构模型文章结构模型文章发表前不仅,布勒呐在剑桥大学发表前不仅,布勒呐在剑桥大学见到他们。以后在英国剑桥大学见到他们
2、。以后在英国剑桥大学的卡文迪许实验室。和克里克有的卡文迪许实验室。和克里克有长期活跃的讨论和合作。长期活跃的讨论和合作。布勒呐对分子生物学有多项重要贡献,是分子生物学开创者布勒呐对分子生物学有多项重要贡献,是分子生物学开创者之一。他发现之一。他发现mRNA,是一项可获诺贝尔奖的工作。他研究,是一项可获诺贝尔奖的工作。他研究遗传密码也有几个重要贡献。遗传密码也有几个重要贡献。1961年,他在年,他在自然自然杂志有杂志有两篇论文,一篇关于两篇论文,一篇关于mRNA,一篇关于遗传密码。,一篇关于遗传密码。1962年起,他和年起,他和Crick讨论了几年,认为分子讨论了几年,认为分子生物学的框架已经有
3、了,要开创新领域。布勒生物学的框架已经有了,要开创新领域。布勒呐想做发育和神经系统。他的想法是用简单的呐想做发育和神经系统。他的想法是用简单的动物,依靠遗传学,来理解发育和神经。动物,依靠遗传学,来理解发育和神经。1963年,布勒呐提出用一种叫年,布勒呐提出用一种叫C.briggsiae的线虫研的线虫研究发育和神经,他不断读文献和采集样本,到究发育和神经,他不断读文献和采集样本,到1965年找到叫年找到叫C.elegans的线虫。的线虫。这种线虫在这种线虫在研究上有许多优势:结构简单、透明、生活周研究上有许多优势:结构简单、透明、生活周期短、可以冷冻储存等,还证明可以用遗传学期短、可以冷冻储存
4、等,还证明可以用遗传学手段研究线虫,手段研究线虫,1967年,他们获得第一个线虫年,他们获得第一个线虫遗传突变体。到遗传突变体。到1974年,布勒呐在年,布勒呐在遗传学遗传学杂志上发表了第一篇有关线虫的论文。杂志上发表了第一篇有关线虫的论文。75岁的布勒呐(Sydney Brenner)部分因布勒呐喜欢不同学科的部分因布勒呐喜欢不同学科的人,部分因学生物的有许多人人,部分因学生物的有许多人笑话用线虫做研究,布勒呐初笑话用线虫做研究,布勒呐初期招的学生常出身于数学、工期招的学生常出身于数学、工程和化学。他认为背景不多的程和化学。他认为背景不多的人更少成见敢于冒险。人更少成见敢于冒险。70年年代加
5、入线虫研究的人冒很大的代加入线虫研究的人冒很大的危险,因不容易判断线虫能有危险,因不容易判断线虫能有多大用处。多大用处。80年代中,线虫年代中,线虫研究在生物学界成为一个研究在生物学界成为一个“热热门门”,现在,世界上有许多研,现在,世界上有许多研究线虫的实验室和科学家,究线虫的实验室和科学家,在在发育生物学和神经生物学都有发育生物学和神经生物学都有重要发现重要发现。布勒呐得奖原因就布勒呐得奖原因就是他开创用线虫做生物学研究是他开创用线虫做生物学研究材料,而不是某项具体研究工材料,而不是某项具体研究工作。作。主要主要用线虫做了包括发育生物学和神经生物学的许多方面用线虫做了包括发育生物学和神经生
6、物学的许多方面。一个重点是细胞一个重点是细胞凋亡的分子机理,他用遗传突变的方法找到关键的调节细胞凋亡的基因凋亡的分子机理,他用遗传突变的方法找到关键的调节细胞凋亡的基因。诺。诺贝尔奖委员会引用的是他的女研究生爱丽思(贝尔奖委员会引用的是他的女研究生爱丽思(Ellis)和他于)和他于1986年在年在细细胞胞杂志发表的论文。其后他实验室还发现其它控制细胞凋亡的基因。这些杂志发表的论文。其后他实验室还发现其它控制细胞凋亡的基因。这些基因被霍维茨实验室的研究生克隆和进一步研究,主要是袁均英基因被霍维茨实验室的研究生克隆和进一步研究,主要是袁均英(1977年上年上海高考第一名进复旦海高考第一名进复旦)和
7、和Hengartner等。霍维茨实验室的研究,推动人们理等。霍维茨实验室的研究,推动人们理解细胞凋亡的分子机理,他们的结果和其他研究哺乳动物细胞凋亡的结果对解细胞凋亡的分子机理,他们的结果和其他研究哺乳动物细胞凋亡的结果对比,发现细胞凋亡在不同动物用的是同样的分子,其机理也是相同的。比,发现细胞凋亡在不同动物用的是同样的分子,其机理也是相同的。高等动物细胞凋亡研究领域高等动物细胞凋亡研究领域里,英国的里,英国的Wiley 和和Kerr、澳大利亚的澳大利亚的Vaux和和Cory、美国的美国的Korsmeyer等也有重等也有重要发现。细胞凋亡的生物化要发现。细胞凋亡的生物化学机理研究的最重要突破来
8、学机理研究的最重要突破来自于目前在得州大学西南医自于目前在得州大学西南医学中心的王晓东院士的实验学中心的王晓东院士的实验室。室。55岁的霍维茨(H.Robert Horvitz)霍维茨不仅自己动手时做研究杰出,霍维茨不仅自己动手时做研究杰出,他从他从1978年以来领导的实验室,一直年以来领导的实验室,一直是生命科学界最高产的实验室之一。是生命科学界最高产的实验室之一。他有多方面的重要工作、论文很多,他他有多方面的重要工作、论文很多,他实验室开创的实验室开创的对小对小RNA和对嗅觉机理的初期研究,都有在将来达到诺贝尔高和对嗅觉机理的初期研究,都有在将来达到诺贝尔高度的可能。霍维茨培养了许多出色的
9、科学家度的可能。霍维茨培养了许多出色的科学家,他的直接和间接学生遍布美国,他的直接和间接学生遍布美国主要大学和研究机构,也有在欧洲和台湾的,其中华裔的包括北大毕业的韩主要大学和研究机构,也有在欧洲和台湾的,其中华裔的包括北大毕业的韩珉和金亦石、复旦毕业的袁钧英、科大毕业的薛定、和台湾大学的吴怡春等珉和金亦石、复旦毕业的袁钧英、科大毕业的薛定、和台湾大学的吴怡春等(其中袁钧英和薛定研究细胞凋亡)。(其中袁钧英和薛定研究细胞凋亡)。55岁的霍维茨(H.Robert Horvitz)60岁的萨尔斯顿(John Sulston)萨尔斯顿原学有机化学。他喜欢自己动手做实验,萨尔斯顿原学有机化学。他喜欢自
10、己动手做实验,加入布勒呐小组后,他主要工作是加入布勒呐小组后,他主要工作是分析线虫的细分析线虫的细胞谱系。胞谱系。和人的家谱一样,机体的每一个细胞也和人的家谱一样,机体的每一个细胞也有谱系关系,从单个受精卵,不断分裂产生更多有谱系关系,从单个受精卵,不断分裂产生更多的细胞,最后形成身体全部许多不同的细胞。在的细胞,最后形成身体全部许多不同的细胞。在复杂动物细胞谱系关系都是不明确的,迄今我们复杂动物细胞谱系关系都是不明确的,迄今我们还不清楚拇指任何细胞和小指任何细胞的谱系关还不清楚拇指任何细胞和小指任何细胞的谱系关系。萨尔斯顿初期是单独,以后和霍维茨和其他系。萨尔斯顿初期是单独,以后和霍维茨和其
11、他少数几个人合作,用显微镜观察线虫细胞谱系。少数几个人合作,用显微镜观察线虫细胞谱系。这里,线虫透明和细胞数有限的特点比较重要。这里,线虫透明和细胞数有限的特点比较重要。19761976年,萨尔斯顿在伦敦年,萨尔斯顿在伦敦皇家学会会刊皇家学会会刊上发上发表论文,表论文,报道线虫神经系统内部分细胞谱系的分报道线虫神经系统内部分细胞谱系的分析结果。这是第一次在任何动物有这样好的细胞析结果。这是第一次在任何动物有这样好的细胞谱系分析,同时,他发现,有一些特定的细胞生谱系分析,同时,他发现,有一些特定的细胞生出后必定死亡,称为出后必定死亡,称为“程序性死亡程序性死亡”。这在当时这在当时是奇怪的现象,为
12、什么有些细胞在每个个体的发是奇怪的现象,为什么有些细胞在每个个体的发育过程中都会出生,但是在不同的个体中又在同育过程中都会出生,但是在不同的个体中又在同样的发育阶段要死去?好像生出来就是为死一样。样的发育阶段要死去?好像生出来就是为死一样。“程序性死亡程序性死亡”以后证明和以后证明和7070年代中在高等动物年代中在高等动物发现不久的发现不久的“细胞凋亡细胞凋亡”是同样的。是同样的。Apoptosis-(Gr.falling)a process seen in multicellular organisms,by which specific cells are killed and remov
13、ed for the benefit of the organism.1972.Kerr,J.F.R.,Wyllie,A.H.and Currie,A.R.Br.J.Cancer 26:239.apoptosis1965 Lockshin and Williams programmed deathProgrammed cell death is a mechanism which removes damaged cells or infected cells by activation of an intrinsic suicide program without eliciting an i
14、mmune response or inflammatory reaction.Programmed cell death also referred to as apoptosis was coined byKerr,Wyllie and Currie in 1972(Brit J.Cancer 26:239)to describe a form of cell death distinct from necrosis.Its Greek meaning“falling off”emphasizes the death of living matter is an integral part
15、 of the life cycle of organisms.PCD/APOPTOSIS mode of cell death that occurs under NORMAL PHYSIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS plays an important role in multicellular development,differentiation,and proliferation/homeostasis and immune responses It is involved in deletion of entire structures,sculpting of tiss
16、ues,and regulates the neuron number adaptive mechanism active process-requires ATPAPOPTOSIS normal cell turnover tissue homeostasis embryogenesis induction and maintenance of immune tolerance development of nervous system endocrine dependent tissue atrophyWhen do you see apoptosis?membrane blebbing&
17、changesmitochondrial leakageorganelle reductioncell shrinkagenuclear fragmentationchromatin condensationAPOPTOSIS:Morphological eventsApoptosis and necrosis have aspects in common,and,although one heeds the distinction,in practice necrosis may supervene upon a cell undergoing apoptosis,&there is oth
18、er overlappingAPOPTOSISmembranes intactinvites phagocytosisshrinkage remains controlledNORMALNECROSISNECROSIS vs APOPTOSISmembranes leakyspillagewhole cell dissolved largely nuclearinflammation induced MOSTLY by physiological stimuli lack of growth factors cell stress T-cell mediated virally-induced
19、 chemically-inducedAPOPTOSIS NECROSISPhysiological Significance evoked by NON-physiological stimuli complement attack lytic viruses physical trauma hypoxia/ischemia metabolic poisons affects scattered individual cells inflammation is MOSTLY absent(phagocytosis of apoptotic bodies)APOPTOSIS NECROSISH
20、istological Features Usually affects tracts of contiguous cells inflammation is presentNECROSISAPOPTOSIS shrinking of cytoplasm and condensation of nucleus membrane blebbing formation of membrane bound vesiclesAPOPTOSIS NECROSISMorphological Features swelling of cytoplasm and mitochondria(influx of
21、Na+&water)loss of membrane integrity no vesicle formation activation of specific enzymes like caspases&Ca2+-dependent endonucleases ATP-dependentAPOPTOSIS NECROSISBiochemical Features loss of ion homeostasis ROS,release of non-specific lytic enzymes no energy requirement Mitochondria and organelles
22、intact Fragmentation of cell into smaller bodies Chromatin condensation and marginationAPOPTOSIS NECROSISMorphological Features disintegration of organelles(swelling)Complete lysis and spillage of cell content Chromatin breakdown and condensationApoptosis in Worms,Flies,MammalsApoptosisnClues from C
23、aenorhabditis elegansDuring development exactly 131 cells die,while 959 survivecontrolled by ced genes,encoding CED proteinsdeath signal causes CED-4 to bind to inactive CED-3,activating it,leading to apoptosisCED-9 binds to CED-4,prevents activation of CED-3nHomologues found in humans and other ani
24、malsMammalian system more complexThree classes of proteins function in the apoptotic pathway(Bcl-2)(Apaf-1)(caspase-9)Apoptosis Signaling Pathway There are two major apoptotic pathways in mammalian cells.The death receptor pathway,exemplified by FasL binding to an extracellular receptor,causes the f
25、ormation of the DISC that results in the activation of caspase-8.(死亡受体途径死亡受体途径)The mitochondrial pathway is activated by most cellular stresses.A resulting signal or intracellular change causes the release of cytochrome c into the cytosol.Cytochrome c binds to Apaf-1 and procaspase-9 to form the apo
26、ptosome and catalyzes the activation of caspase-9.(线粒体途径线粒体途径)Mitochondrial pathway Role of mitochondria important in necrosis important role in activating apoptosis some downstream events ATP dependent certain caspases and Bcl-2 family members present in mitochondria permeability transition release
27、s cytochrome c cytochrome c binds to apaf-1 and caspase-9(apoptosome)Please remember name of the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway founder:Wang Xiaodong!王晓东教授王晓东教授 美国科学院院士!美国科学院院士!Two canonical apoptosis pathways in mammalian cellsFasL:Fas ligand;FADD:Fas associated death domain-containing protein DD:
28、death domain;DED:death effector domain DISC:death-induced signaling complexCARD:caspase recruitment domain Apaf-1:apoptosis activating factor-1 IAP:inhibitor of apoptosiscrosstalkDISCInitiator caspaseEffector caspaseExtrinsic pathwayIntrinsic pathwayTNF-TNFR apoptosis pathway(two-complex hypothesis)
29、TNF:tumor necrosis factorTNFR:TNF receptorTRADD:TNFR associated death domain-containingTRAF:TNFR associated factorRIP1:receptor interacting partner(kinase)NFkB:nuclear factor kappa BJNK:c-Jun N-terminal kinaseC-FLIP:cellular FLICE(caspase-8)inhibitor proteintBid:truncate BidjBid:JNK-mediated Bid fra
30、gment生生死死Apoptosis RegulationPositive regulation:induction or activationNegative regulation:inhibitionp53Apoptosis events see last slideInitiator caspases 6,8,9,12Activators of initiator enzymesApoptotic signalsExecution caspases 2,3,7APOPTOSIS:Signaling&Control pathways IExternally drivenInternally
31、 drivenCytochrome cExternally drivenActivationmitochondrionp53ExternalInternalApoptosis eventsInitiator caspases 6,8,9,12Activators of initiator enzymesApoptotic signalsExecution caspases 2,3,7Inhibitors of apoptosisAPOPTOSIS:Signaling&Control pathways IIInhibitorsExternally drivenInternally drivenC
32、ytochrome cExternally drivenSurvival factorsBcl2InhibitionREGULATION OF APOPTOSIS1.Signaling Factors&Initiaion 2.Regulator or modulators3.Execution or effectors4.Clearance Apoptosis Initiating stimuli physiologic signals development,tissue involution cell mediated immunologic processes drugs and tox
33、ins irradiation,mild hyperthermia withdrawal of growth factors hypoxia!APOPTOSIS:Signaling factorsExternalInternalActivators of initiator enzymesInhibitors of apoptosisInhibitorsExternally drivenSurvival factorsGrowth factorsTumor Necrosis Factor-a aApoptosis eventsInitiator caspasesApoptotic signal
34、sExecution caspasesExternally drivenInternally drivenCytochrome cDNA damage Stress responsesFas ligandAPOPTOSIS:Signaling factors IIExternalInternalApoptosis eventsInitiator caspasesActivators of initiator enzymesApoptotic signalsExecution caspasesInhibitors of apoptosisInhibitorsCytochrome cSurviva
35、l factorsGrowth factorsAttachment to basal laminaFor some epithelial cells,detachment from the basal lamina triggers apoptosis,using integrin signaling-in this instance,termed ANOIKISHence BL attachment is a survival factorApoptotic Pathways Effectors&Modulators Caspase family Bcl-2 family Adaptors,
36、FADD,TRADD Apaf-1,Smac Cytochrome c Endonuclease,DFF45,EndoG IAPs othersIntroduction of caspaseCASPASE cysteinyl-aspartate-specific proteinase family of cysteine proteases specificity for aspartate residues present as proenzymes(zymogens)activated by proteolytic cleavage,often by other caspases auto
37、activation via aggregation hence,a cascade of activationClassification of caspases Caspases Apoptotic and inflammatory caspases initiator and executioner caspases caspase-3 an important executioner caspase final common pathway activated by caspases-8,-9,-10Caspases and substrates large family-14 mem
38、bers found in mammalian systems(human 12)act on a variety of substrates regulatory&structural proteins cytoskeletal proteins nuclear lamins Kinases Other important molecules Consensus sequence in substrates ex.DXXD,casp3;(V/I/L)EXD,casp6caspasesInitiator caspasesEffector caspasesActivation of caspas
39、esProposed Interaction Between Different CaspasesDuring Apoptosis2CASPASE CASCADEPlasma MembraneCASP 8APAF-1proCASP 9CASP 9Cyt.cCASP 7CASP 6CASP 3AMPLIFICATIONCOMMITMENTCellularChanges/insultsApoptosisMito-chondriaEffect of caspases cleavage on substratesFurther discussion on caspases can be found i
40、n Earnshaw,W.C.et al.1999.Annu.Rev.Biochem.68:383.Pro-apoptotic regulators(Bad,Bax)promote caspase activationSome trophic factors(NGF)prevent apoptosis by inducing inactivation of a pro-apoptotic regulatorApoptotic Pathways Effectors&Modulators Caspase family Bcl-2 family Adaptors,FADD,TRADD Apaf-1,
41、Smac Cytochrome c Endonuclease,DFF45,EndoG IAPs others Bcl-2 is a proto-oncogene that was first discovered in B-cell lymphoma.Bcl-2 protein:anti-apoptotic protein inhibits the release of cytochrome c,and activation of APAF-1.Several models are discussed in Hengartner,M.O.2000.Nature 407:770.Addition
42、al information about Bcl-2 family members can be found in Gross,A.et al.1999.Genes&Dev.13:1899.Bcl-2 proteinBcl-2 family Contain Bcl-2 Homology domains(BH 1-4)Pro-and anti-apoptotic proteins at least 19 members Contain TM domain(mit/nuc/ER)Sensors some with pro-and others with anti-apoptotic functio
43、ns.The ratio between these two types helps determine the fate of the cell BAX:pro-apoptotic protein that induces the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria.Classification of Bcl-2 familyBax/Bcl-2BaxBcl-2Bcl-2Bcl-2BaxBaxSurvivalApoptosisBcl-2 and Bax balanceBax/Bcl-2Outer MitochondrialMembrane
44、Cyt.cBaxAPAF-1ProCASP 9CASP 9Cyt.cAPOPTOSISBcl-2Bcl-2&Bax act on cyto c releaseP53-GUARDIAN OF THE GENOMEp53 induces apoptosis,whenexpressed in very high levels-irreversible DNA damagecell has completed S-phase(DNA replicated)DNADamageDamageResponsep53Arrest/RepairG1/SG2Apoptosisvia BaxBax target of
45、 p53DNA Damage-induced apoptosisRole of p53 and BaxAnother level of apoptotic regulationPro-apoptotic when unphosphorylatedInhibits anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family membersSensitizes the cell to apoptosisInactive when phosphorylated(ex.by Akt1;1999,Science)Bcl-2Bcl-2BaxBaxBADBAD protein of the Bcl-2 fami
46、lyA model for the role of Bcl-2 family members in apoptosis.Apoptotic Pathways Effectors&Modulators Caspase family Bcl-2 family Adaptors,FADD,TRADD Apaf-1,Smac Cytochrome c Endonuclease,DFF45,EndoG IAPs othersSignalling pathways induced by CD95Fas-associated Death DomainDeath-inducing signaling comp
47、lexIAP proteins(DIAP,XIAP,etc.)IAP inhibitorsReaper,Hid,Grim(fly)Smac,DIABLO(mammal)1.Signaling Factors&Initiaion 2.Regulator or modulators3.Execution or effectors4.Clearance PhagocyteApoptoticCellRAC-1DOCK 180CRKIIELMOCytoskeletalReorganization forEngulfmentC1q ReceptorBridgeC1qC1qBindingSitePSPhos
48、phatidyl-serineReceptorsScavengerReceptors?Oxidized LDL-like SiteApoptosis and Phagocytosis Phagocytes recognize“eat-me”or cell corpse signals on the apoptotic cell surface.These signal the phagocyte to activate cellular engulfment machinery.Phosphatidylserine exposure on the target cell surface and
49、 the phosphatidylserine receptor on the phagocyte are essential for phagocytosis.Defining other receptors,bridge molecules,“eat-me”signals and signaling molecules involved in initiating the cytosolic changes needed for engulfment are very active areas of research.The articles listed below review cur
50、rent knowledge and are the sources for this diagram.Savill,J.and Fadok,V.2000.Nature.407:784.Canradt,B.2002.Nature Cell Biol.4:E139.1.2.3.4.EngulfmentPhagocyteApoptoticCellWith eat mesignalsPhagocyteHealthyCellPhagocyteApoptoticCellWith eat mesignalsPhagocytePrecursorApoptoticCellWith eat mesignalsP