1、2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits1Chapter 10Inheritance of Complex Traits2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits2Chapter OutlineComplex Patterns of InheritanceStatistics of Quantitative GeneticsAnalysis of Quantitative traitsQuantitative Genetics of Human Behavioral Traits2022-8-11Inheritance of
2、 Complex Traits3航空报国英模：罗阳航空报国英模：罗阳2012年年11月月24日舰载机成功起降日舰载机成功起降“辽宁辽宁”号号2012年年11月月25日总指挥罗阳因心肌梗死逝世日总指挥罗阳因心肌梗死逝世原因何在？原因何在？2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits4Cardiovascular Disease:A Combination of Genetic and Environmental Factors2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits5Section 1Complex Patterns of In
3、heritanceBreeding experiments and comparisons between relatives reveal that complex phenotypes may be influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits61.Quantitative TraitsNature is full of examples of traits that vary continuouslybody size,heig
4、ht,weight,the activity of a particular enzyme,reproductive ability,and general vigor and fitness,to name just a few.These are among the most interesting traits in biology,especially from an evolutionary standpoint.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits7One phenotype seems to blend imperceptibly into
5、 the next;however,if we examine many individuals in a population,we usually find significant differences among them.Often this type of variation can be quantified by measuring the trait in a sample of individuals from the population.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits8We might,for example,capture
6、 mice in a barn and weight them or collect corncobs from a field and count the number of kernels on each.With such a quantitative approach,the phenotype of every individual in the sample is reduced to a number.These numbers can be analyzed with a variety of statistical techniques,enabling us to stud
7、y the trait and,in particular to investigate its genetic basis.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits9Traits that are amenable to this kind of treatment are called quantitative traits(数数量性状量性状).Their essential characteristic is that they can be measured.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits10If can
8、 we link the evolution with genetics?2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits11 A growing body of evidence suggested that the complex inheritance of quantitative traits could be explained by Mendelian theory.Two insights made this possible:1.Quantitative traits are influenced by many genes.2.Quantitat
9、ive traits are influenced by many factors in environment.It is the combination of genetic and environmental influences that makes quantitative traits difficult to study.These traits depend on a complex mix of factors;that is,they are multifactoral.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits12Wilhelm Joha
10、nnsen1857-1921One of the first people to show that variation in a quantitative trait is due to genetic and environment factors.He studied the weight of seeds from the broad bean,Phaseolus vulgaris(蚕豆蚕豆).Among the plants available to him,seed weight varied from 150 mg to 900 mg.He established lines f
11、rom individual seeds across this range and maintained each line by self-fertilization for several generation.丹麦生物学家丹麦生物学家基因概念的提出者基因概念的提出者2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits13Johannsen observed that seed weight also varied within each of the pure lines.This residual variation in this trait is due
12、to genetic differences because each line had been systematically inbred to make it homozygous for its genes.Rather,it must have been due to variation in uncontrolled factors in the environment.His work led to the realization that phenotypic variation in a quantitative trait has two componentsone gen
13、etic,the other environmental.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits14H.Nilsson-Ehle He provided evidence that the genetic component of this variation could involve the contributions of several different genes.Nilsson-Ehle studied color variation in wheat grains.When he crossed a white-grained variet
14、y with a dark red-grained variety,he obtained an F1 with an intermediate red phenotype.Self-fertilization of the F1 produced an F2 with seven distinct classes,ranging from white to dark red.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits15Inheritance of grain color in wheat.Three independently assorting gene
15、s(A,B,and C)are assumed to control grain color.Each gene has two alleles.The alleles for pigmentation(upper case letter)are semidominant over the alleles for lack of pigmentation(lower case letters).这就能用多基因的分离和组合来解释这就能用多基因的分离和组合来解释2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits16The American geneticist East
16、extended Nilsson-Ehles studies to a trait that did not show simple Mendelian ratios in the F2.East studied the lengthen of the corolla in tobacco flowers.In one pure line,the corolla length averaged 41mm;in another,it averaged 93 mm.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits172022-8-11Inheritance of Com
17、plex Traits18Within each pure line,East observed some phenotypic variationpreassembly the result of environmental influences.By crossing the two lines,East obtained an F1 that had intermediate corolla length and approximately the same amount of variation that had seen within each of the parental str
18、ains.When East intercrossed the F1 plants,he obtained an F2 with about same corolla length,on average,that he saw in the F1;however,the F2 plants were much more variable than the F1.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits19 The variability was due to two sources:the segregation and independent assort
19、ment of different pairs of alleles controlling corolla length,and environmental factors.Each inbred some of the F2 plants to produce an F3 and observed less variation within the different F3 lines than in the F2.The reduced amount of variation within the F2 lines was presumably due to the segregatio
20、n of fewer allelic differences.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits20Thus,the complex inheritance pattern that East observed with corolla length could be explained by a combination of genetic segregation and environmental influences.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits21How many genes were invol
21、ved in determining corolla length in Easts strains of tobacco?We can make a crude guess by comparing the F2 plants with each of the inbred parental strains.Lets suppose that the strain with the shorter corollas was homozygous for one set of alleles and that the strain with the longer corollas was ho
22、mozygous for another set of alleles.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits22Furthermore,lets suppose that the long-corolla alleles are semidominant,that all length-controlling genes assort independently,and that each gene makes an equal contribution to the phenotype.If corolla length were determined
23、 by one gene,with alleles a(for short corolla)and A(for long corolla),we would expect of F2 to have short corollas(like the short parental strain)and to have long corollas(like long parental strain).2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits23If two genes determined corolla length,we would expect 1/16 t
24、o resemble the long-corolla parent.If three genes were involved,the frequency of each parental type in F2 would be 1/64,and if four genes were involved,it would be 1/256.With five genes,the parental frequencies in the F2 would each be 1/1024.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits24East studied 444 F
25、2 plants and failed to find even one with either of the parental phenotypes.This failure would seem to rule out the hypothesis of four or fewer genes controlling corolla length.Thus,we can conclude that at least five genes are responsible for the difference in corolla length between Easts two inbred
26、 strains.至少有至少有5个基因参与了花冠长度的调控！个基因参与了花冠长度的调控！2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits252.Threshold Traits(阈性状阈性状)Continuously varying traits such as corolla length,grain color,and bean size are controlled by multiple factors,both genetic and environmental.Geneticists have found that some discontinuous
27、traits also appear to be multifactorial.For example,some humans are born with cleft lip,a condition due to an error in embryological development.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits26Although family studies have suggested that cleft lip is caused by genetic and environmental factors,it is not a qu
28、antitative trait in the usual sense;individuals either express it or they do not.Nonetheless,the genetic and environmental factors that predispose an individual to show it appear to vary quantitatively.Thus,although cleft lip is manifested discontinuously,its underlying variation seems to be continu
29、ous.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits27 Geneticists theorize that when the underlying variable exceeds a certain level,the trait appears.This type of trait is therefore called a threshold trait.当潜在的变量超出一定水平的当潜在的变量超出一定水平的时候，性状就会表现出来，这时候，性状就会表现出来，这就是阈性状就是阈性状A model for expression of a threshold t
30、rait.When the underlying variable,the“liability(易患性易患性),”reaches a threshold value,the trait is expressed.This variable is assumed to be continuously distributed in the population.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits28There is,in effect,a genetic“liability”to develop the condition.However,only tho
31、se individuals whose liability crosses the threshold are actually at risk.The underlying variable is a function of factors in the genotype as well as factors in the environment.Some individuals carry alleles that predispose them to develop cleft lip.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits29In humans,
32、the evidence that traits such as cleft lip are influenced by genetic factors comes from comparisons between relatives,especially twins.Occasionally a fertilized human egg splits and forms two genetically identical zygotes.The individuals who develop from these zygotes are referred to as one-egg,or m
33、onozygotic(MZ),twins;they share 100%of their genes.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits30单羊膜腔单羊膜腔2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits31More frequently,two independently fertilized eggs develop at the same time in the mother wombs.These two-egg,or dizygotic(DZ),twins are closely related as ordina
34、ry siblings;thus,they share 50%of their genes.Because of their genetic identity,we would expect MZ twins to be phenotypically similar than DZ twins.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits32Similarity with respect to a trait like cleft lip is assessed by determining the concordance rate(一致率一致率)the fra
35、ction of twin pairs in which both twins show the trait among pairs in which at least one of them does.For cleft lip,the concordance rate has been estimated to be about 40%for MZ twins and about 4%for DZ twins.The much greater concordance rate for MZ twins strongly suggests that genetic factors influ
36、ence an individuals likelihood of being born with cleft lip.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits33Mental illnesses such as schizophrenia and manic-depressive disorder can also be regarded as threshold traits.For schizophrenia,the concordance rate ranges from 30 to 60%for MZ twins and from 6 to 18%
37、for DZ twins;for manic-depressive disorder,the concordance rate is 70-80%for MZ twins and about 20%for DZ twins.Thus,twin studies suggest that both of these mental illness are influenced by genetic factors.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits34Key PointsResemblances between relatives and responses
38、 to selective breeding indicate that complex traits have a genetic basis.Some complex traits can be quantified to permit genetic analysis based on Mendelian principles.Many genetic and environmental factors influence the variation observed in quantitative traits.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Trait
39、s35Key PointsPhenotypic segregations may provide a way to estimate the number of genes that influence a quantitative trait.Traits that are manifested when an underlying continuous variable(the liability)reaches a threshold value may be influenced by genetic factors.In humans,evidence that a threshol
40、d trait has a genetic basis comes from studies with twins.The concordance rate is the fraction of twin pairs in which both twins show a trait among pairs in which at least one of them does.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits36Section 2Statistics of Quantitative GeneticsThe frequency distributions
41、 of quantitative traits can be characterized by summary statistics.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits37The hallmark of quantitative traits is that they vary continuously in a population of individuals.This type of variation poses a formidable problem for the geneticist.Segregation ratios are dif
42、ficult,if not impossible,to discern because the number of phenotypes is large and one phenotype blends imperceptibly into the next.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits38For quantitatively varying traits,routine genetic analyses of the sort that we have done with seed color in peas and with human d
43、isorders such as albinism are out of the question.For these types of traits we must resort to a different kind of analysis,one that is based on statistical descriptions of phenotype in a population.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits391.Frequency DistributionThe first step in the study of any qua
44、ntitative trait is to collect measurements of the trait from individuals in a population.Usually,only a small fraction of all the individuals in the population can be measured.We call this group the sample(样本样本).The data from the sample can be presented graphically as a frequency distribution(频数频数分布
45、分布).2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits40 Frequency distributions and descriptive statistics of time to maturity in four populations of wheat.A and B are inbred strains that were crossed to produce F1 hybrids.The F1 plants were intercrossed to produce an F2.Seed from all four populations was plan
46、ted in the same season to determine the time to maturity.In each case,data were obtained from 40 plants.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits412.The Mean and the Modal ClassThe essential characteristics of a frequency distribution can be summarized by simple statistics calculated from the data.One
47、of these summary statistics is called the mean or average=(Xk)/nX2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits42The modal class(众数组众数组)in a sample that contains the most observations.In each of the distributions the mean is within or very close to the model class.Like the mean,it also captures the“center”o
48、f the distribution.This coincidence reflects the symmetry of the distributions;in each case,roughly equal numbers are above and below the mean and the modal class.Not all distributions have this feature.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits43Some are skewed(偏离的偏离的),with most of the observations clu
49、stered at one end and only a few at the other end forming a long tail.Statisticians have developed an extensive theory about a particular type of symmetrical distribution called a normal distribution(正态分布正态分布).In this bell-shaped distribution,the mean and the modal class are located exactly in the c
50、enter.2022-8-11Inheritance of Complex Traits443.The variance and the Standard DeviationThe data in a frequency distribution could be dispersed,or they could be clustered.To measure the spread of data in a frequency distribution,we use a statistic called variance(方差方差).Data that are widely dispersed
