1、Zhang Yu,Li Lei,Zhang XiaomiaoIntroductionAfter the centuries of circular debates around literal and free translation,theoreticians in the 1950s and 1960s began to attempt more systematic analyzes of translation.The new debate revolved around certain key linguistic issues.The most prominent of these
2、 issues were those of meaning and equivalence.Key figures and their theories in this new debate Roman Jakobson:the nature of linguistic meaning and equivalence Eugene Nida:formal and dynamic equivalence and the principle of equivalence effect Peter Newmark:semantic and communicative translation Wern
3、er Koller:korrespondenz and quivalenz Roman Jakobson About Roman Jakobson Interlingual translation:linguistic meaning and equivalenceAbout Roman Jakobson:Roman Osipovich Jakobson(October 11,1896-July 18,1982)was a Russian linguist and literary theorist.As a pioneer of the structural analysis of lang
4、uage,which became the dominant trend of twentieth-century linguistics,Jakobson was among the most influential linguists of the century.Influenced by the work of Ferdinand de Saussure,Jakobson developed,with Nikolai Trubetzkoy,techniques for the analysis of sound systems in language Main works:On Lin
5、guistic Aspects of Translation,Jakobsons Communication ModelRoman Jackobsons three kind of translation:Intralingual translation(语内翻译）Interlingual translation(语际翻译）Intersemiotic translation(符际翻译）Here we focus on his interlingual translationInterlingual translation Interlingual translation referring t
6、o translation between two different written languages.Key issues of Interlingual translation:linguistic meaning and equivalence Linguistic meaning Here Jackobson follows the relation set out by Saussure between the signifier(能指）and the signified(所指），the relationship between them is arbitrary.E.g.:ch
7、eeseThe English word cheese is the acoustic signifier which denotes the concept food made of pressed curds(the signified),although there is no inherent reason for what to be so.Equivalence(equivalence in meaning between different languages)Jakobsons points:Here is ordinarily no full equivalence betw
8、een code-units(代码单位之间通常不存在完全的对等）The problem of meaning and equivalence focus on differences in the structure and terminology of language.（意义和对等的问题主要在于语言结构和语言用语之间的差异。）Cross-linguistic differences centre around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms,they occur at:the level of gender,the level of asp
9、ect,the level of semantic fields (跨语言的差异主要集中在一定的语法词汇形式,体现在性别层面上，形貌层面上和语义领域层面上）The questions of meaning,equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960and were tackled by a new scientific approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation
10、studies,the American Eugene Nida.Eugene A.Nidathe“science”of translatingContent Introduction The nature of meaning:advances in semantics and pragmatics The influence of Chomsky Formal and dynamic equivalence The discussion to translation theories of NidaIntroductionlToward a Science of Translating-(
11、Brill,1964)lThe Theory and Practice of Translation-(Brill,1969,with C.R.Taber)lEugene A.Nida(born November 11,1914)has been a pioneer in the fields of translation theory and linguistics.His most notable and most controversial contribution to translation theory is Dynamic Equivalence,also known as Fu
12、nctional Equivalence.This approach to translation aims to reproduce the intention of the original text in the translation,rather than reproducing the actual words of the original.The nature of meaning:advances in semantics and pragmatics The origin of Nidas approach The aim of Nidas research Classif
13、ication of meaning Techniques to determine referential and emotive meaningThe origin of Nidas approach Nidas more systematic approach borrows theoretical concepts and terminology both from semantics and pragmatics and from Norm Chomskys work on syntactic structure which formed the theory of generati
14、ve-transformational grammar.(奈达较具系统的研究方法，是从语用学和语义学的理论概念和术语以及诺姆乔姆斯基的句法结构著作借鉴而来的，这种句法结构形成了转换生成语法理论。)The aim for Nidas research from the semantic and pragmatic angle Central to Nidas work is the move away from the old idea that an orthographic word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definitio
15、n of meaning which a word“acquires”meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture.(奈达的研究旨在摆脱那种认为每个单词都有固定意义的陈腔，提倡对意义进行功能定义，词要通过语境才能“得到”意义，并可依据不同文化产生不同反应。)Classification of meaning Meaning is broken down into:linguistic meaning(语言意义),referential meaning(指称意义),Emotiv
16、e(or connotative)meaning(情感或内涵意义).Techniques to determine referential and emotive meaning Techniques to determine referential and emotive meaning focus on analyzing the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields.(决定指称意义和情感意义的技巧，主要集中于分析词的结构，以及区分相关词汇领域中的近义词。)These t
17、echniques include:1,Hierarchical structuring(层级结构法)，which differentiates series of words according to their level.以层级来区分词组。(superordinate and hyponyms)2,Componential analysis(成分分析),which seek to identify and discriminate specific features of a range of related words.旨在识别和区分一组相关词语的特性。(relationship te
18、rms)3,Semantic structure analysis(语义结构分析)，which encourage the trainee translator to realize that the sense of a varies and most particularity is conditioned by its context.鼓励受训翻译人员意识到一种语义复杂的用语其意思变化多端，最为其语境所制约。(e.g.spirit，bachelor)The influence of Chomsky Introduction of Chomskys model About kernels
19、Nidas development of the model Nidas three-stage system of translationIntroduction Nida incorporates key features of Chomskys model into his“science”of translation.Chomskys generative-transformational model analyzes sentences into a series of related levels governed by rules.把句子分析为一系列受规则制约的相关层级。转换生成
20、语法的规则为：一部分生成语法的核心句，即那些初级的基本的语句；一部分则可通过转换规则从核心句转换成无数的派生句。e.g.1,The man who kicked the ball scored the goal that won the game.2,The man who had s super performance scored the goal that made his team the winner.虽然这两句的表层结构不同，但其深层结构的语法关系始终是一致的：The man scored the goal.About kernels Kernels“are the basic s
21、tructural elements out of which language builds its elaborate surface structures”.核心句是“用来构成语言复杂表层结构的基本结构成分”。Kernels are to be obtained from the ST surface structure by a reductive process of back-transformation.核心句乃从原语文本的表层结构通过逆向转换的还原过程变换而来的。Kernels are the level at which the message is transferred
22、into the receptor language before being transformed into the surface structure in three stages:“literal transfer”,“minimal transfer”and“literary transfer”.核心句是讯息被转移至接受语时的层次，而且尚未经过三个转换阶段“字面转移”，“低度转移”，“书面转移”。P.41Nidas development of the model Nida sees that it provides the translator with a technique
23、for decoding the ST and a procedure for encoding the TT,although he reserves Chomskys model when analyzing the ST.Thus,the surface structure of the ST is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure;these are transferred in the translation process and then restructured semantically and sty
24、listically into the surface structure of TT.(奈达认为这种模式为译者提供对原语文本进行解码的技巧，以及对目的语文本进行编码程序，不过在分析原语文本时，奈达却将乔姆斯基的模式倒序进行。)A(source language)B(receptor language)原语 接受语(analysis)分析 (restructuring)重构 转移 X (transfer)YNidas three-stage system of translationFormal and dynamic equivalence and the principle of equi
25、valent effect Types of equivalence Formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence supplement Four basic requirements of translationTypes of equivalence“Two basic orientations”or“types of equivalence”:(1)Formal equivalence;(形式对等)(2)Dynamic equivalence.(动态对等)Formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence Form
26、al equivalenceFormal equivalence focuses attention on the message itself,in both form and contentOne is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language.形式对等强调要注意讯息本身的形式和内容，其中要关注的是接受语中的讯息应与原语中的不同成分尽可能的保持一致。Most typi
27、cal of this kind of translation are“gloss translation”,with a close approximation to ST structure,often with scholarly footnotes,allowing the student to gain close access to the language and customs of the source culture.最典型的类似翻译是“释译”，最贴近原文结构，通常附以注释让学生对该原语文化的语言和习俗加深理解。Dynamic equivalence is based on
28、 what Nida calls“the principle of equivalent effect”,where“the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptor and the message”.动态对等是基于奈达的“对等效应原则”，要求“接受者和讯息之间的关系应与原来是接受者和讯息间所存在的关系保持相当程度的一致”。supplement Do you see any green
29、 in my eye?形式对等：你从我的眼睛里看到绿色吗？动态对等：你以为我是好欺负的吗？奈达有关翻译的定义指明，翻译不仅是词汇意义上的对等，还包括语义、风格和文体的对等，翻译传达的信息既有表层词汇信息，也有深层的文化信息。“动态对等”中的对等包括四个方面：1.词汇对等；2.句法对等；3.篇章对等；4.文体对等。在这四个方面中，奈达认为，”correspondence in meaning must have priority over correspondence in style”(意义是最重要的，形式其次)(郭建中,2000,P67)。形式很可能掩藏源语的文化意义，并阻碍文化交流。因此，
30、在文学翻译中，根据奈达的理论，译者应以动态对等的四个方面，作为翻译的原则，准确地在目的语中再现源语的文化内涵。Four basic requirements of translation Making sense(言之成理)；Conveying the spirit and manner of the original(传达原文精神风貌)；Having a nature and easy form of expression(表达自然流畅)；Producing a similar response(产生共鸣).The discussion to translation theories of
31、Nida Advantages:The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.奈达所以的关键作用在于为翻译摆脱词与词之间的严格对等指明了道路。His production of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence were crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory.他所提出的形式对等和动态对等概念
32、，为翻译理论引入一种以接受者为导向(或基于读者)的概念具有重要影响。Nida went a long way to producing a systematic analytical procedure for translators working with all kinds of text and he factored into the translation equation the receivers of the TT and their cultural expectations.他经过长期研究探索出一套为翻译人员制定各种语篇的系统系分析程序，并且把目的语文本的接受者和他们的文
33、化期许也纳入翻译程序的考虑因素。Criticism Equivalence is still overly concerned with the word level.(by Lefevere)对等仍然过分关注词汇层。Equivalent effect or response to be impossible.(by van den Broeck and Larose)对等效应和反应是不可能的。The“implausibility”of equivalent response.对等反应的不可行性。The closest natural equivalent may stand in a con
34、tradictory relation with dynamic equivalence.最贴切的对等可能与动态对等有所矛盾。Cultural references.文化指称问题。(by Qian Hu)Peter Newmark About Peter Newmark Definition of Communication translation and Semantic translation Main difference between Nida and Newmark Comparison of Newmarks semantic and communicative translat
35、ion Discussion of NewmarkAbout Peter Newmark Peter Newmark(19162011),was an English professor of translation at the University of Surrey.Main works:Approaches to translation(1981)A Textbook of Translation(1988),Paragraphs on Translation(1989),About Translation(1991)Main contribution:he introduces tw
36、o kinds of translation methods which are semantic translation(语义翻译)and communicative translation（交际翻译)Definition of Communication translation and Semantic translation:Communicative translation:in which“the translator attempts to produce the same effect on the TL readers as was produced by the origin
37、al on the SL readers”(1981/1988:22).(resembles Nidas dyanmic equivalence)交际翻译试图使读者阅读译文所产生的效果尽可能地接近原语读者阅读原文所产生的效果。Semantic translation:attempt to render,as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow,the exact contextual meaning to the original.(resembles to Nidas fo
38、rmal equivalence)语义翻译试图在合乎第二语言的语义和句法结构下，将原文的准确语境意义尽可能贴切地译出。Main difference between Nida and Newmark:Newmark did not agree with Nidas full principle of equivalent effect,since that effect is inoperant if the text is out of TL space and time(1981:69)For example:The translator cannot possible hope or e
39、xpect to produce the same effect on the TT reader as the ST had on listeners in ancient Greece when comes to the translation of Homer.Comparison of Newmarks semantic and communicative translation:Communicative translation,is concerned mainly with the readers,usually in the context of a language and
40、cultural variety,while semantic translation is concerned with the author usually as an individual,and often in contradistinction both to his culture and to the norms of his language.For more details Please see Page 45.For example:Wet paint!semantic translation(语义翻译)：湿油漆！communicative translation（交际翻
41、译）：油漆未干，请勿触摸Newmark states clearly there is no purely semantic translation or purely communicative translation in translation practice,and only through a combination of the two methods can a translation be both accurate in meaning and acceptable to the target language reader.However,if there is a co
42、nflict between the two forms of translation,then communicative translation should win out.Discussion of Newmark Newmarks terms semantic translation and communicative translation have often been quoted in the literature of translation theory,but they have received far less discussion than Nidas forma
43、l and dynamic equivalend.Newmark has been criticized for his strong prescriptivism.The large number of examples in Newmarks work provide ample guidance and advice for the trainee and many of the questions he tackles are of important practical relevance to translation.Werner Koller Correspondence and
44、 EquivalenceContent Background Differences between correspondence and equivalence Five different types of equivalence How to aid the translator and the role of the translation theory Kollers checklist for translationally relevant text analysis SummaryBackground Nidas move towards a science of transl
45、ation has proved to be especially influential in Germany.Important work on equivalence was carried out by Werner Koller.Kollers Research into the science of translation examines more closely the concept of equivalence and its linked term correspondence.Differences between the two terms Correspondenc
46、e falls within the field of contrastive linguistics,which compares two language systems and describes contrastively differences and similarities.Its parameters are those of Saussures langue(Saussure 1916/83).对应属于对比语言学领域，用来比较两种语言系统，并对比描述两者的异同。其参数采用了索绪尔的langue语言。Equivalence relates to equivalent items
47、 in specific ST-TT pairs and contexts.The parameter is that of Saussures parole.对等则指切合个别原语文本和目的语文本配对和语境的对等项目。其参数采用了索绪尔的parole言语。Koller points out that,while knowledge of correspondence is indicative of competence in the foreign language，it is knowledge and ability in equivalences that are indicative
48、 of competence in translation.科勒指出，掌握对应体现外语能力，而掌握并能够使用对等则体现翻译能力。Five different types of equivalence Denotative equivalence is related to equivalence of the extralinguistic content of a text.Other literature,says Koller,calls this content invariance.外延对等外延对等，指与一个语篇的语言外部内容对等。科勒指出，其他文献称之为“内容恒定性”。Connot
49、ative equivalence is related to related to the lexical choices,especially between near-synonyms.Koller sees this type of equivalence as elsewhere being referred to as stylistic equivalence.内涵对等内涵对等，指词汇选择，尤其是近义词之间的选择。科勒指其他文献称为“文体对等”。Text-normative equivalence is related to text types,with different k
50、inds of texts behaving in different ways.语篇规约对等语篇规约对等与语篇类型有关，不同的语篇对等方式不同。Pragmatic equivalence,or communicative equivalence,is oriented towards the receiver of the text or message.This is Nidas dynamic equivalence.语用对等语用对等或“交际对等”，强调语篇或信息接受者导向，相当于奈达的“动态对等”。Formal equivalence,which is related to the f
