1、I.What is discourse/text?II.Basic feature of E&C DiscourseIII.Coherence of Discourse p A continuous stretch of language larger than a sentence,often constituting a coherent unit,such as a sermon,argument,joke or narrative.(Crystal,1992:250)p A stretch of language consisting of several sentences,whic
2、h are perceived as being related in some way.(Nunan:5)p 篇章是指由连贯的句子或语段所构成的、或长或短的语义整篇章是指由连贯的句子或语段所构成的、或长或短的语义整体，例如一篇散文、一项合同、一页说明书、一首诗歌、一个体，例如一篇散文、一项合同、一页说明书、一首诗歌、一个剧本、一次谈话、一则寓言、一封书信、一部小说或专著，或剧本、一次谈话、一则寓言、一封书信、一部小说或专著，或其中意义比较完整的片段。其中意义比较完整的片段。I.What is discourse/text?p 篇章不是一连串孤立的句子的简单组合，而是一个语义篇章不是一连串孤立
3、的句子的简单组合，而是一个语义上的整体，即表达整体意义。上的整体，即表达整体意义。(coherence)p 语言形式上，篇内各句、段之间存在着粘连性（语言形式上，篇内各句、段之间存在着粘连性（cohesion），如连接、替代、省略、照应；），如连接、替代、省略、照应；(cohesion)p 语义逻辑上，全篇通常有首有尾，各句段所反映的概念语义逻辑上，全篇通常有首有尾，各句段所反映的概念或命题具有连续性。每个句子都起着一定的承前启后的作或命题具有连续性。每个句子都起着一定的承前启后的作用，句与句、段与段的排列一般都符合逻辑顺序。用，句与句、段与段的排列一般都符合逻辑顺序。(coherence)I
4、.What is discourse/text?1.Linear Vs spiral(直线直线VS螺旋螺旋)(Robert B.Kaplan)English OrientalEnglish discourse:n 英语篇章的组织结构主要呈直线型英语篇章的组织结构主要呈直线型(linear)展开展开,先有主题句（先有主题句（topic sentence）,紧接自然衔接的例证句，然后收尾。或先出现例证句，以紧接自然衔接的例证句，然后收尾。或先出现例证句，以主题句收尾，成为典型的演绎主题句收尾，成为典型的演绎(deductive)与归纳与归纳(inductive)型段落。型段落。n 直线型语篇结构直
5、观直线型语篇结构直观,句子之间使用连接词衔接句子之间使用连接词衔接,体现解析式体现解析式(analytic)思维。思维。n 英语段落遵循从一般到具体英语段落遵循从一般到具体,从整体到个体的原则从整体到个体的原则,形式结构严谨。形式结构严谨。整个段落形成一个层级系统整个段落形成一个层级系统,层层递进层层递进,环环相扣环环相扣,具有内在的连贯性。具有内在的连贯性。Chinese discourse:n 汉语篇章的组织结构主要呈螺旋型（汉语篇章的组织结构主要呈螺旋型（circular/spiral）展开）展开,即对段即对段落主题而言，作者往往不直接论证落主题而言，作者往往不直接论证,而是在主题外围采
6、取而是在主题外围采取“迂回战迂回战术术”,以多种间接的角度来说明主题以多种间接的角度来说明主题,强调铺、承、转、合，习惯于先强调铺、承、转、合，习惯于先分述分述,或从侧面说明或从侧面说明,最后迂回点出主题最后迂回点出主题,以反复而又发展的螺旋型形以反复而又发展的螺旋型形式加以展开。式加以展开。n 以语义为中心以语义为中心,只要语义相关只要语义相关,篇章就会自然而然流动。句子之间是篇章就会自然而然流动。句子之间是靠思维的连贯、语义的自然衔接、上下呼应来表达一个完整的意思。靠思维的连贯、语义的自然衔接、上下呼应来表达一个完整的意思。I believe that I speak for every
7、sincere and serious representative in the United Nations-so I am encouraged to believe by the speeches to which we have already listened this morning-when I say that the anniversary must be an occasion for an honest assessment of our failures in the past,matched by an equally determined will to do b
8、etter in the future,so that we can escape from frustration and turn the anniversary into an inspiration and an achievement.Match the sentence order between the two versions！这次周年纪念会应该是一这次周年纪念会应该是一个老老实实的评估我们过个老老实实的评估我们过去失误的时机，同时也应去失误的时机，同时也应该是一个表达我们有同样该是一个表达我们有同样决心要做好今后工作的时决心要做好今后工作的时机。这样，我们就可免遭机。这样，我
9、们就可免遭挫折，并可把这次周年纪挫折，并可把这次周年纪念变成一种鼓舞和成就。念变成一种鼓舞和成就。当我讲这番话时，我相信当我讲这番话时，我相信今天上午我们听到的今天上午我们听到的发言也使我相信发言也使我相信我是我是代表联合国每一位真诚和代表联合国每一位真诚和严肃的代表讲话的。严肃的代表讲话的。How the topic is approached in the English and Chinese version?The village of Marlott lay amid the northeastern undulations of the beautiful Vale of Blak
10、emore or Blaekmore aforesaid，an engirdled and secluded region，for the most part untrodden as yet by tourists or landscapepainter，though within a four hours journey from London(Hardy:Tess of the Durbervilles)前面说过的那个美丽的前面说过的那个美丽的布雷谷或布莱谷，是一布雷谷或布莱谷，是一处群山环抱、幽静偏僻处群山环抱、幽静偏僻的地方，虽然离伦敦不的地方，虽然离伦敦不过过4个钟头的路程，但是个
11、钟头的路程，但是它的大部分都不曾有过它的大部分都不曾有过游历家和风景画家的足游历家和风景画家的足迹。迹。马勒村马勒村就在它东北就在它东北部那块起伏地带的中间部那块起伏地带的中间。在四川，有一处美妙的在四川，有一处美妙的去处。它背依岷山主峰去处。它背依岷山主峰雪宝顶，树木苍翠，花雪宝顶，树木苍翠，花香袭人，鸟声婉转，流香袭人，鸟声婉转，流水潺潺。名胜古迹荟萃水潺潺。名胜古迹荟萃。它就是松潘县的黄龙。它就是松潘县的黄龙。One of Sichuans finest spots is Huanglong(Yellow Dragon),which lies in Songpan county just
12、 beneath Xuebao,the main peak of the Minshan Mountain.Its lush green forest,filled with fragrant flowers,bubbling streams and songbirds,are rich in historical interest as well as natural beauty.Chinese：Description of the place pointing out the name of the placeEnglish：Vise versa It is a curious fact
13、,of which I can think of no satisfactory explanation,that enthusiasm for country life and love of natural scenery are strongest and most widely diffused precisely in those European countries which have the worst climate and where the search for the picturesque involves the greatest discomfort.A:这是件我
14、不能想出解释的事，就是正好那些天气最坏和寻找这是件我不能想出解释的事，就是正好那些天气最坏和寻找风景如画的地方最带有困难的欧洲国家是对乡村生活具有的热风景如画的地方最带有困难的欧洲国家是对乡村生活具有的热情和对自然景色具有的爱心最强烈和最普遍的。情和对自然景色具有的爱心最强烈和最普遍的。B:B:欧洲有些国家，天气坏透，那里的人要辛苦一番，才能找到欧洲有些国家，天气坏透，那里的人要辛苦一番，才能找到景色如画的地方。奇怪，他们恰好最喜欢过乡村生活，也最爱景色如画的地方。奇怪，他们恰好最喜欢过乡村生活，也最爱欣赏天然风景，而且这个情形也极普遍。这就是实情，我怎么欣赏天然风景，而且这个情形也极普遍。这
15、就是实情，我怎么也想不出一个叫人满意的解释来。也想不出一个叫人满意的解释来。p Discourse coherence requires:1.Coherence in register（语域一致）（语域一致）2.Coherence in logical sequence（逻辑排列）（逻辑排列）3.Cohesive devices（衔接手段）（衔接手段）4.p 连贯（连贯（Coherence）指以信息发出者和接受者双方共同了解的情景为基础，通指以信息发出者和接受者双方共同了解的情景为基础，通过逻辑推理来达到语义的连贯。过逻辑推理来达到语义的连贯。语篇的语篇的“无形网络无形网络”p What is
16、 registerA register is a variety of language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting.p 3 standards of coherence in register:field（话语的范围）（话语的范围）The words and sentences express the same topic or subtopic;mode（话语方式）（话语方式）They are of the same style:formal/informal;written/oral;ar
17、gumentative or descriptive etc.tenor(话语基调话语基调)Indicating the speakers relationship:social distance?她的黑发蓬松地飘拂在宽宽的前额上她的黑发蓬松地飘拂在宽宽的前额上,脸是短短的脸是短短的,上唇也上唇也是短短的是短短的,露出一排亮亮的牙齿露出一排亮亮的牙齿;眉毛又直又黑眉毛又直又黑,睫毛又长又睫毛又长又黑黑,鼻子笔直。鼻子笔直。Are the two passages coherent in register?Her dark hair waved untidy across her broad f
18、orehead,her face was short,her upper lip short,showing a glint of teeth,her brows were straight and dark,her lashes long and dark,her nose straight.Comment:话语范围话语范围(field):话语方式话语方式(mode):话语基调话语基调(tenor):facial features.descriptiveneutralComment:话语范围话语范围(field):有较大的跳跃性有较大的跳跃性;话语方式话语方式(mode):有些句子属于书面语
19、有些句子属于书面语,而另一些句子则更像而另一些句子则更像是口语是口语;话语基调话语基调(tenor):很难看出交际参与者之间的关系和交际意很难看出交际参与者之间的关系和交际意图是什么。图是什么。因此，这一段在语域上缺乏一致性因此，这一段在语域上缺乏一致性,所有这些句子不太可能所有这些句子不太可能出现在同一情景语境里。出现在同一情景语境里。The little white mouse sniffed the cheese carefully.Camemert is a soft,French cheese.The French consume a lo t of dairy products.I
20、snt milk an important source of calcium?You know of course that vitamin deficiencies can lead to feelings of fatigue and listlessness.2.Coherence in logical sequence（逻辑排列）（逻辑排列）组织句子的顺序主要有三种组织句子的顺序主要有三种:p 时间顺序时间顺序(coherence by time sequence)English:by tense Chinese:time signals,such as“着、了、过、当时、随后着、了
21、、过、当时、随后”etc.p 空间顺序空间顺序(coherence by spatial sequence)English:by action verb,prepositions of direction,conjunctions,adverbs Chinese:by action verbs,locative verbs,locative prepositions.p事理顺序事理顺序 English:result reason;conclusion facts;Chinese:reason result;facts conclusion;幼年的鲁迅听了这个故事幼年的鲁迅听了这个故事，心里很不
22、舒服，他为白，心里很不舒服，他为白蛇娘娘打抱不平。当时，蛇娘娘打抱不平。当时，他的唯一的希望就是这座他的唯一的希望就是这座镇压白蛇娘娘反抗的雷锋镇压白蛇娘娘反抗的雷锋塔快些倒掉。塔快些倒掉。The story made the young boy very sadHe had deep sympathy for 1ady White Snake and strongly wished that the pagoda which rested on her as a dead weight would collapse soon.Chinese:by time signal-“了了”to sho
23、w sequence；“当时当时”to show simultaneousness.English:by tense.The story made.(cause)，and（simultaneousness）The saga（冒险故事）（冒险故事）of the white Starliner Titanic，which struck an ice-berg and sank on its maiden voyage in 1912，carrying more than 1500 passengers to their deaths，has been celebrated in print and
24、 on film，in poetry and song.白星级定期班轮泰坦尼克白星级定期班轮泰坦尼克号在号在1912年的处女航中因年的处女航中因撞上冰山而沉没，船上撞上冰山而沉没，船上1500多名乘客几乎全部罹多名乘客几乎全部罹难。此后关于它的种种传难。此后关于它的种种传说就一直成为各种刊物、说就一直成为各种刊物、电影以及诗歌、歌曲的内电影以及诗歌、歌曲的内容而广为流传。容而广为流传。Chinese:“此后此后”to show time sequence.English:“struck”，“sank”，“has been celebrated”to show time sequence.两人走
25、上窄小的圆拱桥，两人走上窄小的圆拱桥，到了对岸。他们下了桥，到了对岸。他们下了桥，前面是一尺多宽的草地，前面是一尺多宽的草地，走上台阶，那里有一个大走上台阶，那里有一个大天井，天井里种了几株玉天井，天井里种了几株玉兰树。兰树。The two traversed(穿过穿过)a small hump-backed bridge to the opposite shoreThen，crossing a narrow strip of lawn，they mounted stone stairs to a large garden of magnolia trees Chinese:words of
26、places and action to show the sequence in the change of places.English:thenp 6 cohesive devices3.1 Reference3.2 Substitution3.3 Ellipsis3.4 Conjunction3.5 Lexical device:repetition,synonym or near synonym,super-ordinate or hyponym,general word3.6 Rhetorical devices:repetition,regression(回环回环),parall
27、el structure etc.3.Cohesive devices3.1 Cohesive devices-reference3.1 Reference(照应照应)Definition 在语篇中，如果对于一个词语的解释不能从词语本身获在语篇中，如果对于一个词语的解释不能从词语本身获得，而必须从该词语所指代的对象中寻求答案，这就产得，而必须从该词语所指代的对象中寻求答案，这就产生了照应关系。照应是语篇中某一成分和另一成分之间生了照应关系。照应是语篇中某一成分和另一成分之间在指称意义上的相互解释关系，使语篇在修辞上言简意在指称意义上的相互解释关系，使语篇在修辞上言简意赅，在结构上更加紧凑，成为
28、前后衔接的整体。赅，在结构上更加紧凑，成为前后衔接的整体。Classification of reference3.1.1 personal reference(人称照应人称照应):by personal pronouns English:more frequently;Chinese:less frequently3.1.2 demonstrative reference(指示照应指示照应)3.1.3 comparative reference(比较照应比较照应)p Personal reference personal pronouns(人称代词人称代词):I,you,he,she,the
29、y;me,you,her,him,them possessive pronouns:my,your,his,her,their,our;mine,yours,ours,hers,his,theirs relative pronouns:who,whomp Contrast between English and Chinese personal reference Relative pronouns only exist in English,which are usually replaced by personal pronouns in Chinese.Personal pronouns
30、 in English sometimes replaced by reiteration of nouns in Chinese.Zero-subjects in Chinese are usually replaced by personal pronouns in English;(1)I began to wonder what God thought about Westley,who certainly hadnt seen Jesus either,but who was now sitting proudly on the platform,.(3)Plants breathe
31、 oxygen and carbon dioxide.In daylight they produce their own food at the same time by a process known as Photosynthesis Some plants,including many trees,go into a form of hibernation during the winter,with their breathing reduced to a minimum.(a)我开始纳闷我开始纳闷,上帝究上帝究竟对弗斯特利怎么想呢竟对弗斯特利怎么想呢?他根本没看见耶酥他根本没看见耶
32、酥,可可他却洋洋得意地坐在教他却洋洋得意地坐在教坛上坛上,(b)植物呼吸氧气和二植物呼吸氧气和二氧化碳。同时植物在白氧化碳。同时植物在白天通过一种叫光合作用天通过一种叫光合作用的过程为自己生产食物的过程为自己生产食物。有些植物有些植物,包括包括许多树木许多树木,到冬季就进到冬季就进入冬眠状态入冬眠状态,这时这时,植物植物的呼吸最微弱。的呼吸最微弱。English relative pronoun(who)Chinese personal reference(他他)English personal reference(they)Chinese reiteration(植物植物)祥子的手哆嗦得更厉
33、害了，祥子的手哆嗦得更厉害了，揣起保单，拉起揣起保单，拉起 车，几乎要车，几乎要哭出来。（老舍哭出来。（老舍骆驼祥子骆驼祥子）a)Xiangzis hands were shaking even more violently as he tucked the guarantee away and pulled his rickshaw out,feeling ready to burst into tears.Chinese:ellipsis of subjects/serial verbs English:he,his,they 朋友有点不好意思地解释说，朋友有点不好意思地解释说，买这座大房
34、子时，孩子们还买这座大房子时，孩子们还在上着学，如今都成家立业了。（在上着学，如今都成家立业了。（枣核枣核）b)My friend looked somewhat ill at ease when he told me this:At the time when he bought this big house,his children had all been at school.Now they had their own homes and jobs.(张培基张培基 译）译）解净收起图说：解净收起图说：“大家出车吧，中午休息的时候再看大家出车吧，中午休息的时候再看 ，就贴在这里。，就贴在
35、这里。”（蒋子龙（蒋子龙赤橙黄绿青蓝紫赤橙黄绿青蓝紫）Xie Jing folded up the diagram and said,“Now get moving.Ill paste this up here and you can have a look at it during the midday break.”Chinese:ellipsis of subject and object-零前指零前指zero anaphora.English:I,this,you,it p 3 types of demonstrative references in EnglishDemonstrat
36、ive pronounsthis/thesethat/thoseDefinite article theDemonstrative adverb herethere,nowthen p 4 Types of demonstratives in Chinese 指代人或事物指代人或事物这这/这些这些那那/那些那些 指代处所指代处所这儿这儿/这里这里那儿那儿/那里那里 指代时间指代时间这会儿这会儿那会儿那会儿 指代性质、状态和程度指代性质、状态和程度这么这么那么；这样那么；这样那样那样,今（今番，今次）、本今（今番，今次）、本（本地、本年）、此（此时、此地），该（该国）（本地、本年）、此（此时、此
37、地），该（该国）等等Frequency of This/that VS 这这/那那EnglishChinesethisthat这这那那409212611(任小华、王丽娜任小华、王丽娜,2008)袭人问道：袭人问道：“这这一个缠丝白玛瑙碟子哪里了？一个缠丝白玛瑙碟子哪里了？”晴雯笑道：给三姑晴雯笑道：给三姑娘送荔枝去的，还没送来呢。袭人道：娘送荔枝去的，还没送来呢。袭人道：“家常送东西的家伙也多，巴巴的家常送东西的家伙也多，巴巴的拿拿这个这个去。去。”晴雯道：晴雯道：“他说他说这个这个碟子配上鲜荔枝才好看。碟子配上鲜荔枝才好看。”红楼梦红楼梦a)What has become of that w
38、hite agate plate.Why choose that particular one?But Baoyu insisted that plate looked best with the fresh leeches.杨译杨译Notes：汉语语篇里，汉语语篇里，“这这”和和“那那”在表示时空距离时往往受心理或视觉的在表示时空距离时往往受心理或视觉的影响，而影响，而this和和that表达的距离概念较接近实际的时空远近距离。表达的距离概念较接近实际的时空远近距离。她到现在还记得很明白的是五六年前的土地庙的香市中看见一只常常会她到现在还记得很明白的是五六年前的土地庙的香市中看见一只常常会笑
39、的猴子，一口的牙齿那么白！但笑的猴子，一口的牙齿那么白！但这这也是她最后一次快乐的纪念也是她最后一次快乐的纪念茅盾茅盾子夜子夜b)She could still remember the monkey she had seen several years before at a temple fair at homeit kept grinning and showing a mouthful of gleaning white teeth.That was her last,happy memory 许孟雄许孟雄 译译He said nothing for a moment.Then:“I
40、scribed something in my notebook the other day for future use,just had the idea while traveling along;that happens a lot.”(R.J.Waller,The Bridges of Madison County)他一时间没说什么。然后说：他一时间没说什么。然后说：“我那天在我笔记本里记下了我那天在我笔记本里记下了一些话以备将来用。是在开车时临时想到的，一些话以备将来用。是在开车时临时想到的，这这是常有的事是常有的事。（梅嘉。（梅嘉 译）译）Notes：“这这”可以用来指称上文提到
41、的刚发生不久的事，而可以用来指称上文提到的刚发生不久的事，而在英语中却必须用在英语中却必须用that.Notes:当发话者指称上文的陈述时，汉语一般用当发话者指称上文的陈述时，汉语一般用“这这”，英，英语一般用语一般用“that”。But there was something in Francesca Johnson that did interest him.There was intelligence;he could sense that.(R.J.Waller:The Bridges of Madison County)(b)可是弗朗西丝卡可是弗朗西丝卡约翰逊身上确实有足以吸引他的东
42、西。约翰逊身上确实有足以吸引他的东西。她善解人意，她善解人意，这这他看得出来。（梅嘉他看得出来。（梅嘉 译）译）To be or not to be:that is a question.（Shakespeare，Hamlet）(a)生存还是死亡，生存还是死亡，这这是个问题。是个问题。我也十分得意我也十分得意这这幅幅“大作大作”，并没有觉得是对老师的不，并没有觉得是对老师的不尊重。（钟灵尊重。（钟灵胡二茄子胡二茄子）I was naturally proud of my“masterpiece”,without the slightest idea that it was a nasty in
43、sult to him.（刘士聪（刘士聪 译）译）Notes:汉语用汉语用“这这”指称指称“说话人自己的说话人自己的”，英语一般用物，英语一般用物主代词主代词my，his，her等。等。这些这些书，都是在全国解放以后，来到我家的。（孙犁书，都是在全国解放以后，来到我家的。（孙犁书籍书籍）a)The books have arrived at my home since 1949,the year the country was liberated.“混账！混账！”那那人大叫起来，使他吃惊了。人大叫起来，使他吃惊了。（鲁迅（鲁迅聪明人和傻子和奴才聪明人和傻子和奴才）b)“Damn it!”the
44、 listener swore in such a loud voice as to make the slave start.（张培基（张培基 译）译）Notes:汉语用汉语用“这这”、“这些这些”、“那那”、“那些那些”指称特定的指称特定的人或物，英语一般用定冠词人或物，英语一般用定冠词the。那些那些日子他们常提起你。（史铁生日子他们常提起你。（史铁生老人老人）a)They spoke of you often during those days.（刘士聪（刘士聪 译）译）“倒像是受惯了惊吓似的，倒像是受惯了惊吓似的，”她又说，她又说，“这些这些年呐！年呐！”（史铁生（史铁生 老人老人）
45、(b)“But its as if panic were a way of life for them.Those years.”Notes:“这些这些”、“那些那些”用在时间名词前，英语一般用用在时间名词前，英语一般用these和和those。在在这这境界境界这这时间唯一的足以感动心情的就是虫儿们的时间唯一的足以感动心情的就是虫儿们的合奏。（叶圣陶合奏。（叶圣陶没有秋虫的地方没有秋虫的地方）The only thing capable of affecting our mood then and there is the chorus by insects.Notes:“这这境界境界这这时间
46、时间”相当于相当于”此时此刻此时此刻”，英语一般用，英语一般用then and there。这这是一所设备和师资水平较高、学费比较昂贵、在全市知是一所设备和师资水平较高、学费比较昂贵、在全市知名度也较高的中学。（钟灵名度也较高的中学。（钟灵胡二茄子胡二茄子）It had a high reputation in the city,for it was well-equipped with teaching facilities and well-staffed with high qualified faculties,but its tuition fee was also high.（刘士
47、聪（刘士聪 译）译）Notes:“这这”指称某物，英语用指称某物，英语用it。p Comparative referencesReferences by adjectives or adverbs（same,so,as,equal,similar,different,otherwise,likewise etc）and their comparative forms.用比较事物异同的形容词或副词以及它们的比较级用比较事物异同的形容词或副词以及它们的比较级(如等如等)所表所表示的照应关系示的照应关系,在语篇中有承上启下的功能在语篇中有承上启下的功能,可以表达实体或事可以表达实体或事物的相同性、相
48、似性、差异性或质与量的优劣等物的相同性、相似性、差异性或质与量的优劣等(黄国文黄国文,1988:99)。English adjectives and adverbs have comparative and superlative forms.Chinese adjectives and adverbs dont have comparative or superlative forms.Comparative meaning is expressed by lexical or syntactic means,such as 更、更加、越发更、更加、越发etc 今天全没月光今天全没月光,我知
49、道不妙。早上小心出门我知道不妙。早上小心出门,赵贵翁的眼色便怪赵贵翁的眼色便怪:似乎怕我似乎怕我,似乎想害我。还有七八个人似乎想害我。还有七八个人,交头接耳的议论我交头接耳的议论我,又怕我又怕我看见。一路上的人看见。一路上的人,都是如此。都是如此。鲁迅鲁迅呐喊呐喊 Tonight there is no moon at all,I know that this is a bad omen.This morning when I went out cautiously,Mr.Zhao had a strange look in his eyes,as if he were afraid of m
50、e,as if he wanted to murder me.There were seven or eight others who discussed me in a whisper.And they were afraid of my seeing them.So,indeed,were all the people I passed.译者译者:杨宪益、戴乃迭杨宪益、戴乃迭 Note:Chinese:“都是如此都是如此”English:so were Most fishermen hated the taste.But it was no worse than getting up at
