1、The Practice ofSocial Research Earl BabbieChapman UniversityPart 1An Introductionto InquiryChapter 1Human Inquiry and ScienceChapter OutlineLooking for RealityThe Foundations of Social ScienceSome Dialectics of Social ResearchThe Ethics of Social ResearchHow We Know What We KnowDirect Experience and
2、 ObservationPersonal InquiryTraditionAuthorityLooking for RealityOur attempts to learn about the world are only partly linked to direct,personal inquiry or experience.A larger part comes from agreed-on knowledge that others give us,things“everyone knows.”This agreement reality both assists and hinde
3、rs our attempts to find out for ourselves.Sources of Secondhand KnowledgeBoth provide a starting point for inquiry,but can lead us to start at the wrong point and push us in the wrong direction.1.Tradition2.AuthorityScience and InquiryEpistemology is the science of knowing.Methodology(a subfield of
4、epistemology)might be called the science of finding out.QuestionHow do individuals learn all they need to know?A.personal experienceB.DiscoveryC.from what others tell usD.all of these choicesAnswer:DIndividuals learn all they need to know from personal experience,discovery and from what others tell
5、us.Ordinary Human InquiryHumans recognize that future circumstances are caused by present ones.Humans learn that patterns of cause and effect are probabilistic in nature.Humans aim to answer“what”and“why”questions,and pursue these goals by observing and figuring out.Inquiry:Errors and Solutions1.Ina
6、ccurate observationsMeasurement devices add precision.2.OvergeneralizationRepeat a study to make sure the same results are produced each time.Inquiry:Errors and Solutions3.Selective observationMake an effort to find cases that do not fit the general pattern.4.Illogical ReasoningUse systems of logic
7、explicitly.Views of RealityPremodern-Things are as they seem to be.Modern-Acknowledgment of human subjectivity.Postmodern-There is no objective reality to be observed.A BookAll of these are the same book,but it looks different when viewed from different locations,perspectives,or“points of view.”Poin
8、t of ViewWifes Point of View.There is no question in the wifes mind as to who is right and rational and who is out of control.Point of ViewHusbands Point of View.The husband has a very different perception of the same set of events,of course.QuestionIn your discussion of measurement with a friend,sh
9、e argues that what you are trying to measure does not exist and your own point of view will determine what you perceive in measuring.She has which view of reality?A.correctB.premodernC.modernD.postmodernE.ScientificAnswer:DIn your discussion of measurement with a friend,she argues that what you are
10、trying to measure does not exist and your own point of view will determine what you perceive in measuring.She has the postmodern view of reality.QuestionYouve gotten As on the last three tests.You have a research project due the last day of class and youre sure youre going to flunk because something
11、 has to break this streak of good luck.Youve fallen prey to:A.illogical reasoning.B.inaccurate observation.C.selective observation.D.over-emphasis on tradition.E.overgeneralization.Answer:AYouve gotten As on the last three tests.You have a research project due the last day of class and youre sure yo
12、ure going to flunk because something has to break this streak of good luck.Youve fallen prey to illogical reasoning.Foundations of Social ScienceThe foundations of social science are logic and observation.A scientific understanding of the world must make sense and correspond to what we observe.Both
13、are essential to science and relate to the three major aspects of social scientific enterprise:theory,data collection,and data analysis.Foundations of Social ScienceTheory-Systematic explanation for the observations that relate to a particular aspect of life.Data collection -observationData Analysis
14、-the comparison of what is logically expected with what is actually observed.Social RegularitiesExamples of Patterns in social life:Only people 18 and older can vote.Only people with a license can drive.AggregatesThe collective actions and situations of many individuals.Focus of social science is to
15、 explain why aggregated patterns of behavior are regular even when individuals change over time.Birthrates,United States:1980 20021982 15.9198315.6198415.6198515.8198615.6198715.7198816.0198916.4199016.7199116.2199215.8199315.4199415.0199514.6199614.4199714.2199814.3199914.2200014.4200114.1200213.9Q
16、uestionSocial research aims to find _ in social life.A.answersB.knowledgeC.practicalityD.regularityE.truthAnswer:DSocial research aims to find regularity in social life.A Variable LanguageVariableLogical groupings of attributes.AttributeCharacteristics or qualities that describe an object.A Variable
17、 LanguageIndependent variableA variable that is presumed to cause or determine a dependent variable.Dependent variableA variable that is assumed to depend on or is caused by another variable.Variable LanguageRelationship Between Two VariablesEducation and Racial PrejudiceLevel of Education%saying Af
18、rican-Americans have less inborn ability to learn Less than high school graduate26%High school graduate10%Junior college15%Bachelors degree6%Graduate degree3%QuestionProfessor Fremler examined the following categories of marital status:married,never married,widowed,separated,and divorced.These categ
19、ories are known asA.variables.B.attributes.C.variable categories.D.units of analysis.E.theoretical elements.Answer:BProfessor Fremler examined the following categories of marital status:married,never married,widowed,separated,and divorced.These categories are known as attributes.Approaches to Social
20、 ResearchIdiographic -Seeks to fully understand the causes of what happened in a single instance.NomotheticSeeks to explain a class of situations or events rather than a single one.Idiographic and Nomothetic Reasoning in Everyday LifeIdiographic:“Hes like that because his father and mother kept givi
21、ng him mixed signals.The fact that his family moved seven times by the time he was 12 years old didnt help.Moreover,his older brother is exactly the same and probably served as a role model.”Nomothetic:“Teenage boys are like that.”Approaches to Social ResearchInduction From specific observations to
22、the discovery of a pattern among all the given events.Deduction-From a pattern that might be logically expected to observations that test whether the pattern occurs.The Wheel of ScienceApproaches to Social ResearchQualitative Data Nonnumerical data.Quantitative Data -Numerical data.Makes observation
23、s more explicit and makes it easier to aggregate,compare,and summarize data.Approaches to Social ResearchPure Research-Sometimes justified in terms of gaining“knowledge for knowledges sake.”Applied Research Putting research into practice.Ethical Guidelines of Social ResearchTwo Basic Guidelines:Part
24、icipation should be voluntary.Social research must bring no harm to research subjects.Quick Quiz1.The two foundations of science areA.tradition and observation.B.observation and logic.C.logic and theory.D.theory and observation.E.logic and generalization.Answer:BThe two foundations of science are ob
25、servation and logic.2.Science A.deals with what should be and not with what is.B.can settle debates on value.C.is exclusively descriptive.D.has to do with disproving philosophical beliefs.E.has to do with how things are and why.Answer:EScience has to do with how things are and why.3.When social scie
26、ntists study variables,they focus onA.attributes.B.groups.C.people.D.characteristics.E.relationships.Answer:EWhen social scientists study variables,they focus on relationships.4._ is the science of knowing.A.intelligenceB.exam takingC.epistemologyD.methodologyAnswer:C Epistemology is the science of
27、knowing.5.Which of the following are true of tradition and authority?A.they both assist human inquiryB.they both hinder human inquiryC.both a and bD.none of these choicesAnswer:CWhich of the following are true of tradition and authority:they both assist human inquiry and they both hinder human inquiry.6._ explanations seek to exhaust the idiosyncratic causes of a particular condition or event.A.idiographicB.latentC.manifestD.nomotheticAnswer:A Idiographic explanations seek to exhaust the idiosyncratic causes of a particular condition or event.
