1、Chapter3-and-7-Morphology英语语言学1.What is word?A minimum free form:the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself,a complete utterance in speech or writing.Is Jane coming tonight?Possibly.Hi.Wonderful.A minimum free form:the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance
2、by itself,eg Is Jane coming tonight?Possibly.Hi.Wonderful.A grammatical unit:sentenceclausephrasewordmorphemeMorphology An average English native high school students knows about 60,000 basic words,such as read,book,language etc.Read:reader,reading,reads,readable,readability,reading-room,lip-read,si
3、ght-read Morphology refers to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.1.2 Classification of words Variable vs.Invariable Words:Variable words:write,writes,writing,wrote,written;cat,cats.Invariable words:since,when,seldom,through,etc.Grammatical vs.Lexical Wor
4、ds:Grammatical/Function words:conjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronouns.Lexical/Content words:nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbs.Open-class words:New members can be added,eg nouns,verbs,adjectives,and adverbs.Closed-class words:New members cannot normally be added,eg pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions
5、,articles,auxiliaries.It is not easy to think of new conjunctions that have entered the English language recently.With the growth of feminist movement,some people suggested that we use e,as a new neutral third person singular pronoun,which could be used as the general form.However,they/there are alr
6、eady used as a neutral third person singular.Anyone can join the club if they like.Everyone can do their best.Word class:known as Parts of Speech in traditional grammar.Noun,verb,adjective,adverb,preposition,pronoun,conjunction,interjection,article,etc.Some new terms in word class:Particle:infinitiv
7、e to,negative not,subordinate units in phrasal verbs“get by”,“look back”,etc.Auxiliary:do,have Modal verbs:can,will,may,must,etc.Determiner:all the articles,demonstratives,and quantifiers that appear before the noun and its modifiers.As many as three determiners may be used in each case and there is
8、 a fixed order when there is more than one.*their all trouble*five the all boys*all this boy*all both girls Predeterminers:all,both;half,one-third,three-quarters;double,twice,three times;such,what(exclamative)Central determiners:the;this,these,that,those;PossP;we,us;you;which,what(relative),what(int
9、errogative);a,another,some,any,no,either,neither;each,enough,much,more,most,less;a few,a little Postdeterminers:every;many,several,few,little;one,two,three;(a)dozen2.Morphology Morphology:the study of word-formation,or the internal structure of words,or the rules by which words are formed from small
10、er components morphemes.2.1 Morphemes A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in language,a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.Boys:boy-s Reader:read-erWord formation-Words are composed of morpheme
11、s.Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes,e.g.1-morpheme boy,desire 2-morpheme boy+ish,desir(e)+ble 3-morpheme boy+ish+ness,desir(e)+bl(e)+ity 4-morpheme gentle+man+li+ness,un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity 5-morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness 7-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ismallomorphWhen
12、people wish to distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the entire morpheme,they may use the term morph.Morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms.They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme,the plural morpheme may be represented by:map-maps sdog-dogs zwatch-watches izmouse-mice aio
13、x-oxen ntooth-teeth sheep-sheepEach of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.A dog,a building,a minute,an orange,an hour,an interesting article2.2 Types of morphemes Free vs.Bound morphemes:Free morphemes:those that may constitute words by themselves,eg boy,girl,table,nation.
14、Bound morphemes:those that cannot occur alone,eg-s,-ed,dis-,un-.Derivational morphemes:black-en,alcohol-ic,multi-media Inflectional morphemes(grammatical markers):notic-ed,walk-ing Root:the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity,eg friend as in unfriendlin
15、ess.Roots may be free:those that can stand by themselves,eg black+board;nation+-al;or bound:those that cannot stand by themselves,eg-ceive in receive,perceive,conceive.Affix:the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.Normally divided into prefix(dis-,un-)and suffix(-e
16、n,-ify).2.3 Word-formationInflectionalMorphologyDerivational/LexicalMorphologyMorphologyMorphological rules The ways words are formed are called morphological rules.These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.Productive morphological rules:rules can be used quite freely to from new wor
17、ds.Un+accept+able Un+think+ableInflection Nominal forms:boys,boys Verb forms:wants,wanted,wanting Adjective/adverb forms:smaller,smallest Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which d
18、o not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.Derivation Derivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes.In contrast with inflections,derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged.Derivation Class-changing:NV:lengthen,hospi
19、talize,discard NA:friendly,delightful,speechless VN:worker,employee,inhabitant VA:acceptable,adorable AN:rapidness,rapidity AV:deafen,sweeten AdjAdv:exactly,quickly Class-preserving:NN:nonsmoker,ex-wife,booklet VV:disobey,unfasten AA:grayish,irrelevantCompounds Two or more free roots combine to make
20、 a new word.Noun compounds:daybreak,playboy,haircut,windmill Verb compounds:brainstorm,lipread,babysit Adjective compounds:gray-haired,insect-eating,dutyfree Preposition compounds:into,throughout Endocentric&exocentric Endocentric:one element serves as the head,the relationship of“a kind of”;eg self
21、-control:a kind of control armchair:a kind of chair Exocentric:there is no head,so not a relationship of “a kind of something”,eg scarecrow:not a kind of crow breakneck:not a kind of neck Written forms of compounds Solid:blackboard,teapot,bodyguard Hyphenated:wedding-ring,wave-length Open:coffee tab
22、le,washing machine Free variation:businessman,business-man,business man winebottle,wine-bottle,wine bottle no one,no-one,noone3.Lexical change Formation of new words Phonological change Morphosyntactic change Semantic change Orthographic change3.1 Word-formation through lexical change Invention/Coin
23、age:a new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose,mostly for new things and objects.Kodak,Coke,nylon,Band-aid,Xerox,Lycra,digital camera,memory stick,spyware,taikonaut(taikong astronaut)Blending:a blend is a word formed by combing parts of other words.transfer+resistortransistor smoke+fogsmo
24、g motorist+hotelmotel breakfast+lunchbrunch modulator+demodulatormodem dance+exercisedancercise advertisement+editorialadvertorial education+entertainmentedutainment information+commercialinfomercial Back-formation:new words may be coined from already existing words by“substracting”an affix thought
25、to be part of the old word.diagnose diagnosis enthuse enthusiasm laze lazy liaise liaison reminisce reminiscence statistic statistics televise television Clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrases.Back-clippings:ad(vertisement),chimp(anzee),deli(catessen),exam(ination),hippo(pota
26、mus),lab(oratory),piano(forte),reg(ulation)s Fore-clippings:(ham)burger,(omni)bus,(violin)cello,(heli)copter,(alli)gator,(tele)phone,(earth)quake Fore-and-aft clippings:(in)flu(enza),(de)tec(tive)Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words.CEO:chief executive office IT:Information
27、technology BBS:bulletin board systemAIDS,Aids:Acquired Immune Deficiency SyndromeASAP:as soon as possibleCD-ROM:compact disc read-only memoryWASP:white Anglo-Saxon protestantdink(y):double income,no kidsnilk(y):no income,lots of kidsBorrowing:when different cultures come into contact,words are often
28、 borrowed from one language to another.French:administration,parliament,public,court,crime,judge,army,enemy,officer,peace,soldier,war,faith,religion,coat,costume,dress,fashion,jewel,dinner,feast,fry,roast,supper,toast,customer,money,price,art,college,music,poet,prose,story,study Latin:admit,client,c
29、onviction,discuss,equal,index,library,medicine,minor Greek:catastrophe,cosmos,criterion,idiosyncrasy Spanish and Portuguese:banana,barbecue,cafeteria,cargo,chocolate,cigar,cocaine,cockroach,cocoa,guitar,mosquito,negro,potato,tank,tobacco,tomato,vanilla Italian:aria,bandit,broccoli,casino,concerto,du
30、et,finale,influenza,mafia,malaria,paparazzi(singular paparazzo),piano,pizza,solo,soprano,spaghetti,studio,umbrella,volcano Dutch:boss,brandy,cookie,cruise,deck,dock,dollar,freight,gin,kit,knapsack,landscape,luck,sketch,slim,smuggle,snap,trek,yacht Arabic:admiral,alchemy,alcohol,algebra,alkali,almana
31、c,assassin,candy,hazard,lemon,magazine,safari,sofa,zero Indian:bungalow,cashmere,curry,ginger,jungle,mango,polo,pyjamas(or pajamas),shampoo,swastika,thug,yoga Chinese:chop suey,chow,chow mein,ginseng,gung-ho,ketchup(or catchup or catsup),kung fu,tea,tofu(via Japanese),typhoonTypes of loan words Loan
32、words:au pair,encore,coup detat,kungfu,sputnik Loanblend coconut:coco(Spanish)+nut(English)Chinatown:China(Chinese)+town(English)Loanshift bridge:meaning as a card game borrowed from Italian ponte Loan translation,or calque free verse L verse libre black humor Fr humour noir found object n in connec
33、ted speech,eg rock-n-roll Addition of sound:L.studium O.F.estudie,Sp.estudio,Port.estudo English:rascal rapscallion Metathesis:changing the sequence of sound O.E.brid bird,O.E.ox/ax ask Assimilation:impossible,immovable irregular,irresponsible illogical,illegal3.3 Morphosyntactic change Morphologica
34、l change:third person singular present tense:-(e)th:do(e)th,goeth,hath,findeth -(e)s:does,goes,has,finds the campus of the university the universitys campus Syntactic change:He saw you not.He didnt see you.I know not where to hide my head.I dont know where to hide my head.Fusion/blending:equally goo
35、d+just as good equally as good Its no use getting there before nine+Theres no use in getting there before nine Theres no use getting there before nine.3.4 Semantic change Broadening:holiday:holy day(religion)day for rest bird:young bird any kind task:tax work Narrowing:meat:food girl:young person yo
36、ung woman deer:beast a special kind of animal Meaning shift:bead:prayer the prayer bead small,ball-shaped piece of glass,metal or wood Class shift:conversion to other word classes engineer:person trained in engineering to act as an engineer(NV)Folk etymology:a popular but mistaken account of the origin of a word or phrase.history:Old French Latin herstory Fake etymology:a kind of folk etymology Manhattan:man with hat on MBA:married but available PhD:perhaps have divorced golf:Gentlemen Only;Ladies Forbidden3.5 Orthographic change Change of spelling:Iesus Jesus sate sat Sunne Sun
