1、Quantitative Analysis定量分析定量分析Chapter 12Gravimetric Methods of AnalysisGravimetric methods of analysis are based on the measurement of mass.There are two major types of gravimetric methods:Precipitation methods:in this method the analyte is converted to a sparingly soluble precipitate.This precipitat
2、e is then filtered,washed free of impurities,and converted to a product of known composition by suitable heat treatment,and the product is weighed.Volatilization methods:in this the analyte or its decomposition products are volatilized at a suitable temperature.The volatile product is then collected
3、 and weighed,or,alternatively,the mass of the product is determined indirectly from the loss in mass of the sample.PROPERTIES OF PRECIPITATES AND PRECIPITATING REAGENTSA gravimetric precipitating agent should react specifically,and selectively with the analyte.The ideal precipitating reagent would r
4、eact with the analyte to give a product that is 1.Readily filtered and washed free of contaminants2.Of sufficiently low solubility so that no significant loss of the solid occurs during filtration and washing3.Unreactive with constituents of the atmosphere4.Of known composition after it is dried or,
5、if necessary,ignited Particle Size and Filterability of PrecipitatesPrecipitates made up of large particles are generally desirable in gravimetric work because large particles are easy to filter and wash free of impurities.In addition,such precipitates are usually purer than are precipitates made up
6、 of fine particles.What Factors Determine Particle Size?The particle size of solids formed by precipitation varies enormously.At one extreme are colloidal suspension,whose tiny particles are invisible to the naked eye(10-7 to 10-4 cm in diameter).Colloidal particles show no tendency to settle from s
7、olution,nor are they easily filtered.At the other extreme are particles with dimensions on the order of tenths of millimeter or greater.The temporary dispersion of such particles in the liquid phase is called a crystalline suspension.The particles of a crystalline suspension tend to settle spontaneo
8、usly and are readily filtered.The particle size of a precipitate is influenced by experimental variables as precipitate solubility,temperature,reactant concentrations,and the rate at which reactants are mixed.The particle size is related to a single property of the system called its relative supersa
9、turation,whererelative supersaturation=(Q S)/SIn this equation,Q is the concentration of the solute at any instant and S is its equilibrium solubility.When(Q S)/S is large,the precipitate tends to be colloidal.when(Q S)/S is small,a crystalline solid is more likely.How do Precipitates Form?Precipita
10、tes form in two ways,by nucleation and by particle growth.The particle size of a freshly formed precipitate is determined by which way is faster.In nucleation,a few ions,atoms,or molecules(perhaps as few as four or five)come together to form a stable solid.Often,these nuclei form on the surface of s
11、uspended solid contaminants,such as dust particles.Further precipitation then involves a competition between additional nucleation and growth on existing nuclei(particle growth).If nucleation predominates,a precipitate containing a large number of small particles results;if growth predominates,a sma
12、ller number of larger particles is produced.Controlling Particle Size Experimental variables that minimize supersaturation and thus lead to crystalline precipitates include elevated temperatures to increase the solubility of the precipitate(S in Equation),dilute solutions(to minimize Q),and slow add
13、ition of the precipitating agent with good stirring.The last two measures also minimize the concentration of the solute(Q)at any given instant.Larger particles can also be obtained by pH control,provided the solubility of the precipitate depends on pH.Colloidal PrecipitatesCoagulation of Colloids:Co
14、agulation can be hastened by heating,stirring,and adding an electrolyte to the medium.Colloidal suspensions are stable because all the particles present are either positively or negatively charged.This charge results from cations or anions that are bound to the surface of the particles.The process b
15、y which ions are retained on the surface of a solid is known as adsorption.We can readily demonstrate that colloidal particles are charged by observing their migration when placed in an electrical field.Peptization of Colloids Peptization refers to the process by which a coagulated colloid reverts t
16、o its original dispersed state.When a coagulated colloid is washed,some of the electrolyte responsible for its coagulation is leached from the internal liquid in contact with the solid particles.Removal of this electrolyte has the effect of increasing the volume of the counter-ion layer.The repulsiv
17、e forces responsible for the original colloidal state are then reestablished,and particles detach themselves from the coagulated mass.The washings become cloudy as the freshly dispersed particles pass through the filter.Crystalline PrecipitatesCrystalline precipitates are generally more easily filte
18、red and purified than coagulated colloids.In addition,the size of individual crystalline particles,and thus their filterability,can be controlled to a degree.The particle size of crystalline solids can often be improved significantly by minimizing Q,maximizing S,or both in Equation.Minimization of Q
19、 is generally accomplished by using dilute solution and adding the precipitating from hot solution or by adjusting the pH of the precipitation medium.Digestion of crystalline precipitates(without stirring)for some time after formation frequently yields a purer,more filterable product.The improvement
20、 in filterability results from the dissolution and recrystallization.CoprecipitationCoprecipitation is the phenomenon in which soluble compounds are removed from solution during precipitate formation.There are four types of coprecipitation:i)surface adsorption,ii)mixed-crystal formation,iii)occlusio
21、n,iv)mechanical entrapmentSurface adsorption and mixed crystal formation are equilibrium processes,whereas occlusion and mechanical entrapment arise from the kinetics of crystal growth.Surface AdsorptionAdsorption is a common source of coprecipitation that is likely to cause significant contaminatio
22、n of precipitates with large specific surface areas,that is coagulated colloids.Coagulation of a colloid does not significantly decrease the amount of adsorption because the coagulated solid still contains large internal surface areas that remain exposed to the solvent.The coprecipitated contaminant
23、 on the coagulated colloid consists of the lattice ion originally adsorbed on the surface before coagulation and the counter ion of opposite charge held in the film of solution immediately adjacent to the particle.The net effect of surface adsorption is therefore the carrying down of an otherwise so
24、luble compound as a surface contaminant.Minimizing Adsorbed Impurities on Colloids The purity of many coagulated colloids is improved by digestion.During this process,water is expelled from the solid to give a denser mass that has a smaller specific surface area for adsorption.Washing a coagulate co
25、lloid with a solution containing a volatile electrolyte may also be helpful because any nonvolatile electrolyte added earlier to cause coagulation is displace by the volatile species.Washing generally does not remove much of the primarily adsorbed ions because the attraction between these ions and t
26、he surface of the solid is too strong.Exchange occurs,however between existing counter ions and ions in the wash liquid.Reprecipitation A drastic but effective way to minimize the effects of adsorption is reprecipitation,or double precipitation.Here,the filtered solid is redissolved and reprecipitat
27、ed.The first precipitate ordinarily carries down only a fraction of the contaminant present in the original solvent.Thus,the solution containing the redissolved precipitate has a significantly lower contaminant concentration than the original,and even less adsorption occurs during the second precipi
28、tation.Reprecipitation adds substantially to the time required for an analysis.Mixed-Crystal FormationIn mixed-crystal formation,one of the ions in the crystal lattice of a solid is replaced by an ion of another element.For this exchange to occur,it is necessary that the two ions have the same charg
29、e and that their sizes differ by no more than about 5%.Furthermore,the two salts must belong to the same crystal class.For example,MgKPO4,in MgNH4PO4,SrSO4 in BaSO4,and MnS in CdS.The extent of mixed-crystal contamination increases as the ratio of contaminant to analyte concentration increases.Mixed
30、-crystal formation is troublesome because little can be done about it.Separation of the interfering ion may have to be carried out before the final precipitation step.Alternatively,a different precipitating reagent may be used.Occlusion and Mechanical EntrapmentWhen a crystal is growing rapidly duri
31、ng precipitate formation,foreign ions in the counter-ion layer may become trapped,or occluded,within the growing crystal.Mechanical entrapment occurs when crystals lie close together during growth.Here,several crystals grow together and in so doing trap a portion of the solution in a tiny pocket.Bot
32、h occlusion and mechanical entrapment are at a minimum when the rate of precipitate formation is low,that is,under conditions of low supersaturation.Digestion is often remarkably helpful in reducing these types of copreipitation.The rapid solution and reprecipitation that goes on at the elevated tem
33、perature of digestion opens up the pockets and allows the impurities to escape into the solution.Precipitation from Homogeneous SolutionPrecipitation from homogeneous solution is a technique in which a precipitating agent is generated in a solution of the analyte by a slow chemical reaction.Local re
34、agent excesses do not occur because the precipitating agent appears gradually and homogeneously throughout the solution and reacts immediately with the analyte.As a result,the relative supersaturation is kept low during the entire precipitation.In general,homogeneously formed precipitates,both collo
35、idal and crystalline,are better suited for analysis than a solid formed by direct addition of a precipitating reagent.DRYING AND IGNITION OF PRECIPITATESAfter filtration,a gravimetric precipitate is heated until its mass becomes constant.Heating removes the solvent and any volatile species carried down with the precipitate.Some precipitates are also ignited to decompose the solid and form a compound of known composition.This new compound is often called the weighing form.The temperature required to produce a suitable weighing form varies from precipitate to precipitate.
