1、Learning Strategies学科英语熊凤凤 张涵Contents Definition of learning strategies Classification of learning strategies Good language learner studies Factors influencing choice of learning strategies The relationship between learning strategies and language learning Learner training Final commentDefinition be
2、haviors or actions which learners use to make language learning more successful,self-directed and enjoyable(Oxford 1989)the behaviors and techniques learners adopt in their efforts to learn in a second language.(Muriel Saville-Troike 2008).Characteristics referring to general approaches and specific
3、 actions or teniques being problem-orientated involving linguistic behavior(e.g.requesting the name of an object)and non-linguistic one(e.g.pointing at an object so as to be told its name)using it both in L1 and L2 learners are aware of and identify the strategies some behavioral(observable),some me
4、ntalSome common terminology Tarone 1980 production strategy:an attempt to use ones linguistic system efficiently and clearly,with a minimum of effort communication strategy:attempts to deal with problems of communication that have arisen in interaction.language learning strategy:an attempt to develo
5、p linguistic and sociolinguistic competenceSome common terminology language learning strategies:attempts to master new linguistic and sociolinguistic information about TL skill learning strategies:attempts to become skilled personSome common terminology Stern 1983 strategies:general and more or less
6、 deliberate approaches to learning techniques:observable forms of language learning behavior evident in particular areas of learning Seliger 1984 strategies:basic abstract categories of processing tactics:variable and idiosyncratic learning activitiesClassification OMalley and Chamot(1990)Metacognit
7、ive:involving attempts to regulate learning through planning,monitoring and evaluating(e.g.previewing concepts deciding in advance to attend specific aspects of input)Cognitive:involving analysis,transformation,or synthesis of learning materials(e.g.predicting inferring)Socio-affective:concerning wa
8、ys in which learner interact with others(e.g.seeking opportunities to interact with native speakers)Classification Oxford 1990 1.Direct memory strategies:grouping,classifying cognitive strategies:practising,repeating compensation strategies:switching to mother tongue 2.Indirect metacognitive strateg
9、ies,e.g.setting goals affective strategies,e.g.taking risks wisely social strategies,e.g.asking for clarificationClassification Purpura 1999 whether relating to comprehending processes,storing/memory processes,or using/retrieval processes Cohen and Chi skills vocabualry translationGood language lear
10、ner studiesStudyLearnersMethodRubin 1975learners of mixed ages in classroom settingsObservation(video camera)Naiman et al.19781.34 graduates L2 learners(many multilingual)2.students of L2 French in grades 8,10,121.interview questionnaire(semi-directed and directed parts)2.classroom obseration schedu
11、le-not successfulRubin 1981young adults in classroom settings1.classroom obseration2.obseration of learner performance on specific language learning tasks3.unstructual self-reports4.directed self-reportGood language learner studiesReiss 1983college learners of L2questionnaire presenting 3 hypothetic
12、al learning situationsHuang and Van Naersson 198520high-and 20 low-proficiency Chinese learners of English in China1.written quesionnaire on ues of formal practice,functional practice,and monitoringReiss 1985college learners at elementary and intermediate levels(some identified as good language lear
13、ners)1.general questionnaire about personality variables and learning strategies2.strategies questionnaire listing 19 strategies from which students selected the ones they used most oftenGood language learner studiesGillette 1987two beginners of L2 Spanish/successful learners of L2 French1.extensive
14、 classroom observation2.classroom notes from one of the learners3.attitude/motivation questionnaire4.interview5.teachers commentsLennon 19894 German learning L2 English in UK1.written answers to general questionnaire2.personal interviewMajor traits of good learners concern for language form and also
15、 meaning concern for communication awareness of the learning process capacity to use strategies flexibly in accordance with task requirements sysematic plan and particular objectives critical self-awareness or self-efficacy Factors influencing choice of learning strategies Leaner factors:1)Age(Ehrma
16、n and Oxford 1989):Young children=empoly strategies in a task-specific manner Older children and adult=generalized strategies 2)Motivation(Oxford and Nyikos 1989):Highly motivated learners used more strategies relating to formal practice,functional practice,general study,and conversation/input elici
17、tation than poorly motivated learner.Learner factors 3)Learning style(Littlemore 2001):Those leaners who had a holistic cognitive style were more likely to utilize holistic communication strategies.4)Learning beliefs(Wenden):Learners who emphasized the importance of learning tended to use cognitive
18、strategies that helped them to understand and remember specific items of language,while learner who emphasized the importance of using language relied on communication strategies.5)Learners experience(Ehrman/Nation and Mclaughlin/Levine,Reves and Leaver):e.g.Professional linguists reported using mor
19、e strategies more frequently than untrained instructors and students.Factors influencing choice of learning strategies Social and situational factors:1)Language(The language being learnt can influence strategy choice.)Wharton(2000):Students studying French had a higher overall mean for strategy use
20、than students studying Japanese.2)Classroom setting:Strategy use of the classroom learners she investigated was lower than that in second language learning situations and that affective strategies in particular were less preferred.Social and situational factors 3)Task type:e.g.Vocabulary tasks led t
21、o the use of the cognitive strategies(resourcing and elaboration)and metacognitive strategies(self-evaluation and self-monitoring).While listening tasks led to note-taking,elaboration,inferencing,summarizing as cognitive strategies,and to selective attention,self-monitoring and problem-identificatio
22、n as metacog nitive strategies.4)Gender:Female used more overall strategies than males.The relationship between learning strategies and language learning There were a series of studies to ensure the relationship between strategy use and proficiency.1)Bialystok(1981)explored the relationship between
23、4 strategies(functional practice,inferencing,formal practice and monitoring)and L2 proficiency.2)Politzer and Mcgroarty suggested that strategies need to be considered in groups rather than in isolation.The relationship between learning strategies and language learning 3)Griffith classified strategi
24、es into 8 groups to find the relationship between language strategies and learning.4)Brown and Perry invested the success of 3 vocabulary-learning strategies:key word,semantic and keyword-semantic.They hypothesized that strategies that involved greater depth of processing would result in better rete
25、ntion.The relationship between learning strategies and language learning Do learners develop high proficiency because of the strategies they use or is it learners proficiency that determine their choice of strategies?Ehrman,Leaver and Oxford suggested that:A strategies is useful under these cinditio
26、ns:1)the strategy relates well to the L2 task at hand.2)the strategy fits the particular students learning style preference to one degree or another.3)the strategy employs the strategy effectively and links it with other relevant strategies.Conclusions of realastionship The following conclusions reg
27、arding the role played by learning strategies in L2 learning are necessarity tentative:1.The strategies that learners elect to use reflect their general stage of L2 development.2.More proficient learners appear to use learning strategies more frequently and in qualitatively different ways than learn
28、ers who are less proficient.3.Different kinds of learning strategies may contribute to different aspects of L2 proficiency.Conclusions of realastionship 4.Learners need to employ strategies flexibly by selecting those strategies that are appropriate for performing a particular learning task.5.Metaco
29、gnitive strategies involving goal identification,planning,monitoring,and evaluation assume consideration importance,at least for adult.However,many learners appear to under-utilize these types of strategy.6.The learning strategies used by children and adults may differ;social and interactional strat
30、egies may be more important with young learners.Conclusions of realastionship MoDonough(1999)had a clearest conclusion:The relationship between strategy use and proficiency is very complicated.Issues such as frequency and quality of strategy use do not better a simple linear relationship to achievem
31、ent in a second language.Learner Training It is difficult to reach any firm conclusions regarding the effectiveness of strategy training.1)Cohen,Weaver,Yuan Li reported s study of the impact of strategy-based instruction on a foreign language.Cohen concluded”it would appear beneficial to engage lear
32、ners in discussions of speaking strategies,having them review checklists of possible strategiesand practice those strategies in classLearner Training 2)Swain investigated the effects of metacognitive strategy training on the accurate use of verb forms by advanced learners of English.It suggested tha
33、t if strategy training involves verbalizing the strategies employed together with opportunity to use the strategies explicitly in the context of communicative activity it can be effective.It is clear that teaching learners strategies is not universally successful.Final Comment Conclusions The result
34、 of all studies are somewhat disappointing.Because of 1)lack of a sufficiently rigorous definition of learning strategies 2)The problem of measurement 3)lack of any theretical account Final Comment Problems:1)strategies are the cause or the result of L2 learning success.2)the complex of other variab
35、les which must be taken into account.3)researchers or instructors may have preconceived ideas as to“what works”,and disrupt a students successful strategy by imposing or encouraging a different one.Because there has been no definite answers,researchers turn to their attention to a related conceptsself-regulation.
