1、Myers Myers PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGY Chapter 10Thinking and Language Thinking Cognition mental activities associated with thinking,knowing,remembering,and communicating Cognitive Psychologists study these mental activities concept formation problem solving decision making judgment formationThinking Conc
2、ept mental grouping of similar objects,events,ideas,or people Prototype mental image or best example of a category matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category(as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird,such as a robin)Think
3、ing Algorithm methodical,logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem contrasts with the usually speedierbut also more error-prone-use of heuristicsThinking Heuristicsimple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficientlyusually speedi
4、er than algorithms more error-prone than algorithmsThinkingUnscrambleS P L O Y O C H Y G Algorithm all 907,208 combinations Heuristic throw out all YY combinations other heuristics?Thinking Insight sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem contrasts with strategy-based solution
5、s Confirmation Bias tendency to search for information that confirms ones preconceptions Fixation inability to see a problem from a new perspective impediment to problem solvingThe Matchstick Problem How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles?The Three-Jugs Problem Using ju
6、gs A,B,and C,with the capacities shown,how would you measure out the volumes indicated?The Candle-Mounting Problem Using these materials,how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board?Thinking Mental Settendency to approach a problem in a particular wayespecially a way that has been successful i
7、n the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problemThinkingFunctional Fixednesstendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functionsimpediment to problem solvingThe Matchstick Problem Solution to the matchstick problemThe Three-Jugs Problem Solution:a)All seven problems ca
8、n be solved by the equation shown in(a):B-A-2C=desired volume.b)But simpler solutions exist for problems 6 and 7,such as A-C for problem 6.The Candle-Mounting Problem Solving this problem requires recognizing that a box need not always serve as a containerHeuristics Representativeness Heuristic judg
9、ing the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent,or match,particular prototypes may lead one to ignore other relevant informationHeuristics Availability Heuristic estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory if instances come readily to mind(perha
10、ps because of their vividness),we presume such events are common Example:airplane crashThinking Overconfidence tendency to be more confident than correct tendency to overestimate the accuracy of ones beliefs and judgmentsThinking Framingthe way an issue is posedhow an issue is framed can significant
11、ly affect decisions and judgmentsExample:What is the best way to market ground beef-as 25%fat or 75%lean?Thinking Belief Bias the tendency for ones preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid or valid conclusions seem invalid Belief Perseveranc
12、e clinging to ones initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discreditedArtificial Intelligence Artificial Intelligence designing and programming computer systemsto do intelligent things to simulate human thought processes intuitive reasoning learning understanding langu
13、ageArtificial Intelligence Computer Neural Networks computer circuits that mimic the brains interconnected neural cells performing taskslearning to recognize visual patternslearning to recognize smellsLanguage Language our spoken,written,or gestured works and the way we combine them to communicate m
14、eaning Phoneme in a spoken language,the smallest distinctive sound unitLanguage Morpheme in a language,the smallest unit that carries meaning may be a word or a part of a word(such as a prefix)Grammar a system of rules in a language that enables us to communicate with and understand othersLanguage S
15、emantics the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes,words,and sentences in a given language also,the study of meaning Syntax the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given languageLanguage We are all born to recognize speech sounds from all the worlds
16、languages1009080706050403020100Percentage ableto discriminateHindi tsHindi-speakingadults6-8 months8-10months10-12monthsEnglish-speakingadultsInfants from English-speaking homesLanguage Babbling Stage beginning at 3 to 4 months the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters
17、 various sounds at first unrelated to the household language One-Word Stage from about age 1 to 2 the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in single wordsLanguage Two-Word Stage beginning about age 2 the stage in speech development during which a child speaks in mostly two-
18、word statements Telegraphic Speech early speech stage in which the child speaks like a telegram-“go car”-using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting“auxiliary”wordsLanguageSummary of Language DevelopmentMonth(approximate)Stage410122424+Babbles many speech sounds.Babbling reveals households language.On
19、e-word stage.Two-world,telegraphic speech.Language develops rapidly intocomplete sentences.Language Genes design the mechanisms for a language,and experience activates them as it modifies the brainLanguage New language learning gets harder with age1009080706050Native3-78-10 11-1517-39Percentage corr
20、ect ongrammar testAge at schoolLanguage Linguistic DeterminismWhorf”s hypothesis that language determines the way we thinkLanguage The interplay of thought and languageAnimal Thinking and Language The straight-line part of the dance points in the direction of a nectar source,relative to the sunDirection ofnectar sourceAnimal Thinking and Language Gestured CommunicationAnimal Thinking and Language Is this really language?
