1、名词解释:1、Ecology is the study of interactions between organisms and their environment. 2、Physical environment is made up of such things as temperature, water, wind, soil, air.; Physical environment can be natural or man-made. Mostly, it is a mix of the two.3、Biotic environment: Comprising any influenc
2、es on an organism that are exerted by other organisms, including competition, predation, parasitism, and cooperation.4、urban ecology:the study of interactions between urban organisms (primarily human-beings) and their environment.5、Ecosystem:.A defined space which includes plants, animals (organisms
3、) and physical interactions . The biggest and most complicated study unit of ecology. 6、Food chains are the pathways of energy and matter through all organisms in an ecosystem. 7、Ecological succession :A fundamental concept ecology, refers to more-or-less predictable and orderly changes in the compo
4、sition or structure of an ecological community. 8、Climax Community :The final or stable community in the process of ecological succession is the climax community or climatic vegetation. 9、Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth and the essential interdependence of all living things10、Trophic le
5、vels are ranks in the food chain. A food chain represents only one possible route for the transfer of energy in an ecosystem.8、urban ecosystem models are based on the interaction of the social,biological ,and physical components of a city.11、 Ecological Footprint:The ecological footprint is a measur
6、e of human demand on the Earths ecosystems. It represents the amount of biologically productive land and sea area necessary to supply the resources a human population consumes, and to mitigate associated waste.12、Ecosystem service function is the capacity of natural processes and components to provi
7、de goods and services that satisfy human needs, directly or indirectly. Chapter one1、Ecology is the study of interactions between organisms and their environment. 2、Physical environment is made up of such things as temperature, water, wind, soil, air.; Physical environment can be natural or man-made
8、. Mostly, it is a mix of the two.3、Biotic environment: Comprising any influences on an organism that are exerted by other organisms, including competition, predation, parasitism, and cooperation.4、arious Branches of Ecology_ by study objects(研究对象).分子生态学(molecule ecology).个体生态学(autecology).种群生态学(popu
9、lation ecology).群落生态学(community ecology).生态系统生态学(ecosystem ecology).景观生态学(landscape ecology).全球生态学(global ecology)5、Size of your study in ecology .Individuals .Populations .Communities .Ecosystems6、urban ecology:the study of interactions between urban organisms (primarily human-beings) and their env
10、ironment.Chapter two1、Ecosystem:.A defined space which includes plants, animals (organisms) and physical interactions . The biggest and most complicated study unit of ecology. .An ecosystem can be of any size depending on the communities to be studied . .Ecologists tend to think of ecosystem in term
11、s of energy flow, carbon flow or nutrient cycles.2、 太阳辐射能 无生命成分 无机物质 有机物质生态系统 生产者(绿色植物) 生命成分 消费者(动物) 还原者(微生物)3、Energy Flow 生态系统的能量流动主要由三者构成:生产者、消费者、分解者。能量主要来自于太阳,生产者(绿色植物)通过光合作用可以直接吸收太阳中的能量。初级消费者以绿色植物即生产者为食,此时能量由生产者转移到初级消费者体内;高级消费者如食肉动物等以初级消费者为食,能量因此又发生转移。消费者或机体部分的死亡以及在生命过程中的排泄再加上初级生产者的死亡,这些死亡的部分大部分
12、归入土壤,被分解者主要是细菌分解成初级消费者可以吸收的营养成分。4、Food chains are the pathways of energy and matter through all organisms in an ecosystem. 5、Trophic levels are ranks in the food chain. A food chain represents only one possible route for the transfer of energy in an ecosystem.(图)6、circulation of energy & nutrition (
13、解释三层意思 1、有哪几部分组成 2、能量在物质间不断循环 3、初级的生产者转化到高一级时能量总是要少于初级的能量) 生产者通过光合作用产生了能量,它产生的物质量必须超过初级消费者的能量,初级消费者产生的能量也必须超过次级消费者的能量以此类推,能量在流动过程中是逐级递减的,只有这样才能保证生态系统的平衡。而所有的生产者,消费者最终都不免走向死亡,死亡的机体部分由分解者分解,一部分变成热量散发,一部分变成营养物质,被生产者吸收,转化为能量。于是生态系统得以循环往复。7、Ecosystem and the laws of thermodynamics:First law: Energy can n
14、either be created nor destroyed. Second law: Every transformation results in a reduction of the free energy of the system.8、Transfer efficiency: The proportion of energy that flows through trophic levels ( 营养层)in the way energy is used and passed from one step to the next.There are three categories
15、of transfer efficiency: Consumption Efficiency (CE), Assimilation Efficiency (AE), and Production Efficiency (PE).9、Nutrient recycle: Water cycle. Carbon cycle. Nitrogen cycle10、碳循环(讨论题): 绿色植物如森林植被通过光合作用吸收大气中的碳,死亡后机体被分解成二氧化碳,热量和营养物质。夜晚植物也会释放出二氧化碳。但是,植被吸收的二氧化碳两要超过它所释放的。海洋也会吸收和排出二氧化碳,但总的来说。海洋吸收的二氧化碳超过
16、了排出的二氧化碳。化石能源在燃烧过程中也排放出大量的二氧化碳,其中排出的二氧化碳量超过了植被、海洋的吸收能力,因此二氧化碳的增多主要是人类燃烧化石能源造成的。 Chapter 3: Changes in Ecosystems:Ecological Succession1.urban ecosystemUrban ecosystem models are based on the interaction of the social,biological ,and physical components of a city.Social environment 社会环境系统包括人工建造的物质环境系
17、统(包括各类房屋建筑、道桥及运输工具、供电、供能、通风和市政管理设施及娱乐休闲设施等)和非物质环境系统(包括城市经济、文化与群众组织系统,社会服务系统、科学文化教育系统等)(manmade physical elements and nonphysical elements)Structure of urban ecosystem 2.Ecological successionA fundamental concept ecology, refers to more-or-less predictable and orderly changes in the composition or st
18、ructure of an ecological community. 3. Climax Community The final or stable community in the process of ecological succession is the climax community or climatic vegetation. It is self-perpetuating and in equilibrium with the physical habitat. There is no net annual accumulation of organic matter in
19、 a climax community mostly. The annual production balanced in such a Climax Community.4.Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth and the essential interdependence of all living things3 components of biodiversity Diversity of genes Diversity of species Variety of ecosystems5.Threats to biodiversi
20、ty Habitat destruction Pollution Species introductions Global climate change ExploitationChapter Four Urban Population and Environment一、Population structure:l 1.Age structure: young, mid, and oldl 2.Sex structure: male and femalel 3. nationality structure: han and minoritiesl 4. Household registrati
21、on Structure: rural or urbanl 5.Family structure: married or singlel 6. Education: high, literate and illiteratel 7.Employment: employed and unemployed二、 Age structure and population growth:Increasing 、Stable 、Decreasing三、 Ecological FootprintThe ecological footprint is a measure of human demand on
22、the Earths ecosystems. It represents the amount of biologically productive land and sea area necessary to supply the resources a human population consumes, and to mitigate associated waste.四、 中国发展带来的环境问题l 1.水污染l 2.大气污染l 3.固体废弃物污染l 4.酸雨l 5.荒漠化l 6.森林锐减l 7.资源短缺l 8.耕地减少l 9.生物多样性丧失l 10.臭氧层损耗l 11.全球气候变化l
23、12.持久性有机物污染五、 存在的问题和面临的挑战 1.人均耕地仅(farmland per capita)为世界平均水平的33%,荒漠化(desertification)严重,土地被占用,30%耕地有水土流失(soilerosion);l 2.森林覆盖( forest coverage) 面积增加,但成熟林(grown-up forest)比例减少;l 3.水资源短缺,水污染严重( water shortage & pollution);l 4.城市大气质量差( air quality & pollution);l 5.固体废弃物(solid waste)不断增加,但没有得到安全处理;l 6
24、.生物多样性( bio-diversity)减少;l 7.资源可利用量(usable resources)少,(usage efficiency) 低。六、 What is ecosystem service functions? Ecosystem service function is the capacity of natural processes and components to provide goods and services that satisfy human needs, directly or indirectly. Ecosystem provides a vari
25、ety of products for human beings, and maintains thefunctions of life-support system七八、 生态服务功能的价值1. USE VALUES: Direct values:Outputs that can be consumed or processed directly, such as timber, fodder, fuel, non-timber forest products, meat, medicines, wild foods, etc. Indirect values:Ecological serv
26、ices, such as flood control, regulation of water flows and supplies, nutrient retention, climate regulation, etc. Option values:Premium(价值) placed on maintaining resources and landscapes for future possible direct and indirect uses, some of which may not be known now.2. NON-USE VALUES:Existence valu
27、es:Intrinsic(内在) value of resources and landscapes, irrespective of its use such as cultural, aesthetic, bequest(遗产) significance, etc.Chapter Four Urban Population and EnvironmentDirect values Market Prices(市场价格)Goods and productsIndirect values Productivity &cost-based approachesEcosystem services
28、 (生产法与成本核算法)Effect on ProductionReplacement CostsCost of Providing SubstitutesCost of Avoided DamageOption values Surrogate market & statedpreference approaches(替代市场和支付意愿法)Travel CostsContingent ValuationExistence valuesDirect values Nature tourismChapter Five urban environment-physical城市环境-物理环境1、Na
29、tural physical environmento Geological environmento Urban air sphereo Urban watero Urban Noiseo Urban Soilo Urban climate2、Heat Island Effect城市“热岛效应” 是城市气候最明显的特征之一, 是指城市气温高于郊区气温的现象。百度百科:城市热岛效应是城市气候中典型的特征之一。它是城市气温比郊区气温高的现象。城市热岛的形成一方面是在现代化大城市中,人们的日常生活所发出的热量;另一方面,城市中建筑群密集,沥青和水泥路面比郊区的土壤、植被具有更小的函授比热容(可吸收
30、更多的热量),并且反射率小,吸收率大,使得城市白天吸收储存太阳能比郊区多,夜晚城市降温缓慢仍比郊区气温高。城市热岛是以市中心为热岛中心,有一股较强的暖气流在此上升,而郊外上空为相对冷的空气下沉,这样便形成了城郊环流,空气中的各种污染物在这种局地环流的作用下,聚集在城市上空,如果没有很强的冷空气,城市空气污染将加重,人类生存的环境被破坏,导致人类发生各种疾病,甚至造成死亡。“热岛效应”的成因气候条件 是造成城市热岛效应的外部因素,而城市化才是热岛形成的内因。一般认为热岛成因有三: 一是城市与郊区地表面性质不同,热力性质差异较大。城区反射率小,吸收热量多,蒸发耗热少,热量传导较快,而辐射散失热量较
31、慢,郊区恰相反 二是城区排放的人为热量比郊区大 三是城区大气污染物浓度大,气溶胶微粒多,在一定程度上起了保温作用。 大气污染在城市热岛效应中起着相当复杂特殊的作用。来自工业生产、交通运输以及日常生活中的大气污染物在城区浓度特别大,它像一张厚厚的毯子覆盖在城市上空,白天它大大地削弱了太阳直接辐射,城区升温减缓,有时可在城市产生“冷岛”效应。夜间它将大大减少城区地表有效长波辐射所造成的热量损耗,起到保温作用,使城市比郊区“冷却”得慢,形成夜间热岛现象。防止热岛效应的方法1选择高效美观的绿化形式、包括街心公园、屋顶绿化和墙壁垂直绿化及水景设置,可有效地降低热岛效应,获得清新宜人的室内外环境。 2居住
32、区的绿化管理要建立绿化与环境相结合的管理机制并且建立相关的地方性行政法规,以保证绿化用地。 3要统筹规划公路、高空走廊和街道这些温室气体排放较为密集的地区的绿化,营造绿色通风系统,把市外新鲜空气引进市内,以改善小气候。 4应把消除裸地、消灭扬尘作为城市管理的重要内容。除建筑物、硬路面和林木之外,全部地表应为草坪所覆盖,甚至在树冠投影处草坪难以生长的地方,也应用碎玉米秸和锯木小块加以遮蔽,以提高地表的比热容。 5建设若干条林荫大道,使其构成城区的带状绿色通道,逐步形成以绿色为隔离带的城区组团布局,减弱热岛效应 在现有的条件上,应考虑 1控制使用空调器,提高建筑物隔热材料的质量,以减少人工热量的排
33、放;改善市区道路的保水性性能。 2建筑物淡色化以增加热量的反射。 3提高能源的利用率,改燃煤为燃气。 4此外, “透水性公路铺设计划”,即用透水性强的新型柏油铺设公路,以储存雨水,降低路面温度。 5形成环市水系,调节市区气候。减弱城市热岛效应的建议(1)要保护并增大城区的绿地、水体面积。因为城区的水体、绿地对减弱夏季城市热岛效应起着十分可观的作用。 (2)城市热岛强度随着城市发展而加强,因此在控制城市发展的同时,要控制城市人口密度、建筑物密度。因为人口高密度区也是建筑物高密度区和能量高消耗区,常形成气温的高值区。 (3)如北京市位于平原中部,三面环山。由于山谷风的影响,盛行南、北转换的风向。夜
34、间多偏北风,白天多偏南风。因此,在扩建新市区或改建旧城区时,应适当拓宽南北走向的街道,以加强城市通风,减小城市热岛强度。 (4)减少人为热的释放,尽量将民用煤改为液化气、天然气并扩大供热面积也是根本对策。 因为水的比热大于混凝土的比热,所以在吸收相同的热量的条件下,两者升高的温度不同而形成温差,这就必然加大热力环流的循环速度,而在大气的循环过程中,环市水系又起到了二次降温的作用,这样就可以使城区温度不致过高,就达到了防止城市热岛效应的目的。 此外,市区人口稠密也是热岛效应形成的重要原因之一。所以,在今后的新城市规划时,可以考虑,在市中心只保留中央政府和市政府、旅游、金融等部门,其余部门应迁往卫星城,再通过环城地铁连接各卫星城。 (5)城市人口稠密,绿化面积较少,应多种植树木。 (6)还需控制工厂的排放。 (7)人工蒸发补偿:解决城市大气热污染的首要办法是增大蒸发量,受城市安装条件的限制,采用喷雾系统是一种高效且经济的办法。蒸发量在0.05g/sm时(白天喷雾11小时相当于2mm降雨量),大气平均降温达7。3、Urban windo 城市风是由于城市生产和生活消耗大量燃料,致使城市内的气温高于周围地区的气温,热气温上升,形成一个低压区,郊区冷空气随之侵入市区构成的空气环流。城市风的大小和形成与盛行风和城乡间的温