1、Chapter 6 SyntaxA study of sentences:sentence structure and formation 6.1 definition of syntax:how the words of a language can be combined to make larger units,such as phrases,clauses(分句分句)and sentences.It studies the interrelationships between elements of the sentence structure and the rules govern
2、ing the production of sentences Finite(有限的有限的)number of words and small set of rules can create infinite number of sentences Syntactic knowledge:the intuition of native speakers about how words are combined to be phrases and sentences.6.2 Grammar:syntax and morphology Grammar studies the morphologic
3、al and syntactic rules of language.It excludes phonetics,phonology,semantics.Grammar includes morphology and syntax;Morphology studies the internal structure of words and word formation processes Syntax deals with the sentence structures and producton.Statically(静态的静态的):sentence structure;dynamicall
4、y:sentence generation.6.3 syntagmatic,paradigmatic and hierarchical relations 6.3 the syntagmatic relationship refers to the linear relationship between the constituents(成分成分)(syntagms or syntagmas 组成成分组成成分).He is from America Sets of syntagmatically related constituents are called structure Paradig
5、matic relations or associative relations refers to the set of relations a linguistc unit has with other units in a specific context.Paradigmatic relations hold between an item and similar ones that can appear in the same position in a sequence Paradigmatic relatons hold between the linguistic elemen
6、ts within a sentence and those outside the sentence.Classes of paradigmatically related elements are called system,like“person system(人称系统人称系统)I/you/he/we/you/they liked the play.Syntactic categories(句法范畴句法范畴)refer to the linguistic forms that have paradigmatic relations.They include lexical categor
7、ies(词汇范词汇范畴畴)and non-lexical categories.Lexical categories:Noun(N):book,table.Verb(V);hit,tell Adjective(Adj):good,bad Adverb(Adv):greatly Determiner(Det)(限定词限定词):a,this,his,Preposition(P):on in conjunction(Conj);and if Interjection(Int)(感叹词感叹词):oh,ah Phrasal categories:Noun phrase(NP):a book Verb p
8、hrase(VP):sing a song Adjective phrase(AP):very good Adverb phrase(ADVP):very well,Auxiliary phrase(AUX)(助动助动词词):tense,model,perf,prog:be,may,Prepositional phrase(PP):in the room Hierarchical structure(层次结构层次结构)refer to the inner layering(内部层次关系内部层次关系)of sentences,that is,sentences consisting of phr
9、ases and phrases in turn are composed of words.Hierarchical structure can be analysed by IC analysis,labeled IC analysis,phrase markers and labeled bracketing.6.4 IC Analysis,.IC Analysis of sentences:to divide the words of a sentence into two groups,and then divide each group into sub-groups and so
10、 on,until the single words of the sentences are obtained.It is a major feature of Bloomfieldian Structuralist linguistics(布龙菲尔德结构布龙菲尔德结构主义语言学的主要特征主义语言学的主要特征)She is from America She+is from America is +from America from+America Immediate constituents:Ultimate constituents Constituents:all the forms e
11、xcept the one at the top-the sentence itself One advantage of IC Analysis is to reveal structural ambiguity(结构性歧义结构性歧义)naughty boys and girls naughty+boys and girls boys+and+girls naughty boys and girls naughty boys+and+girls Naughty+boys They are flying planes They+are flying planes are+flying plan
12、es flying+planes (这些飞机是正在飞行的飞机这些飞机是正在飞行的飞机)They are flying planes They+are flying planes are flying+planes are+flying (他们在驾驶或乘飞机他们在驾驶或乘飞机)They are visiting relatives Do the IC Analysis of the following sentences:Little Tom runs very fast.These apples are very sweet.His brother stayed at home.His bro
13、ther beat little John.Little Tom runs very fast.Little Tom +runs very fastLittle+Tom runs+very fast very+fast Those apples are very sweet.Those apples +are very sweetThose+apples are+very sweet very+sweet His brother stayed at home.His brother +stayed at home His +brother stayed +at home at +home Th
14、at boy beat little Tony That boy +beat little Tony That +boy beat +little Tony little +Tony As the IC analysis show that these four sentences have the same structure superficially,IC analysis should be modified.Labeled IC Analysis:to label the grammatical categories of each constituents and the sent
15、ences.Little Tom runs very fast./S Little Tom/NP +runs very fast/VPLittle/Adj+Tom/N runs/V+very fast/ADVP very/Adv+fast/Adv Those apples are very sweet./s Those apples/NP+are very sweet/VPThose/Det+apples/N are/V+very sweet/AP very/Adv+sweet/Adj His brother stayed at home./S His brother/NP +stayed a
16、t home/VP His/Det+brother/N stayed/V+at home/PP at/P+home/N That boy beat little Tony/S That boy/NP +beat little Tony/VP That/Det+boy/N beat/V +little Tony/NP little/Adj+Tony/N As the IC Analysis is too redundant(重重复的复的)and troublesome,the phrase markers(短语标记法短语标记法)are advanced.Little John runs ver
17、fast Those apples are very sweet.His brother stays at home.That boy beat little John.Labeled bracketing(方括标记法方括标记法):sNPDet the N apples VP V are APADVP Adv very Adj sweetConstituency and Dependency Constituency(成分关系成分关系):It is to divide a sentence into a series of constituents which can be analysed
18、into further constituents until no further division is possible.Constituents structure analysis is a hierarchical analysis showing the different constituents at different structural levels.Dependency grammar(依存语法依存语法)as represented by Lucien Tesniere is to describe dependency structures of sentences
19、,that is,the structure of dependency relations between the elements of a sentence.In a syntactic connection between two elements one is the governing element(支配因素支配因素)and the other is the dependent element(依存因素依存因素).When a governing element is dependent on another governing element,a hierarchical de
20、pendecy structure will results.In a sentence,the absolute governor is the verb.6.6 TG Grammar(转换生成语法)Static study of language deals with only surface structure(表层结构表层结构);dynamic study of language deals with both surface structure and deep structure.Sentence generation(句子的生成句子的生成)always starts with t
21、he deep structure and then transforms it into surface structure.Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules(短语结构规则短语结构规则)while surface structures are derived from the deep structure by the transformational rules.The whole process can be represented by:Phrase structure rules deep structur
22、e T-rules surface structure The same surface structure:The turkey(火鸡火鸡)is ready to eat.different deep structure:a:The turkey itself is ready to eat something.(turkey is the logical subject of eat)b The turkey as a dish is ready for people to eat.(turkey is the logical object of eat)Two surface struc
23、ture may have the same deep structure:the boy broke the window.The window was broken by the boy.Same structures:The problem is easy to follow.Diffenrences:Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences;while deep structures correspond to the meaningful grouping of sen
24、tences.Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meanings of sentences 4 surface srtuctures are pronounceable(have phonetic forms)but deep structures are not.6.6.2 phrase structure rule
25、s ”consist of”or”is rewritten as”():optional constituents(可有成分可有成分);compulsory constituents;要么要么 SNP AUP VP He is working.NP(Det)(AP)N those old books AP(AP)/(ADVP)Adj very old VP V(NP)(PP)(S)/(AP)(ADVP run fast,get to the school PP P NP in the box AUX Tense(Modal)(Perf)(Prog)Tense present/past was
26、is Modal can,may,must,will,shall,could Perf have-EN(完成体完成体)Prog be-ING(进行体进行体)VP has two parts:the base form and inflectinal endings which belong to the auxiliary phrase:tense,modal,perf,prog.6.6.3 transformational rules(转换规转换规则则):to transform deep structures into surface structures,which involves a
27、 series of T-rules.The more T-rules are applied,the more concrete the structure becomes and the closer it is to its surface structure.deep structure by T-rules(1)modified structure(1)by T-rules(2)modified structure(2).by T-rules(n)surface structure Each T-rule performs one or two of the following th
28、ree operations:rearranging the elements of the structure;adding a new element;deleting an element from the structure.Each transformational rule consists of two parts:structural description(SD);structural change(SC).In the description,X,Y,Z can be used as the variables(变量变量)1 T-Affix hopping(时态词缀跳换时态
29、词缀跳换):SD:X Affix V Y 1 2 3 4 SC:1 3 2 4 2 T-Passive(被动态转换规则被动态转换规则)SD:NP1 AUX V NP2 Y 1 2 3 4 5 SC:4 2+be-en 3 +by 1 5 3 T-Agent deletion(施事删除施事删除)SD:NP2 AUX+be-EN V +by NP1 X 1 2 3 4 5SC:1 2 3 O 5 4 T-Negation(否定转换规则否定转换规则)SD:X Tensemodal/have/be Y 1 2 3 SC 1 2+not 3 5 T-Do insertion SD:X Tense Y 1
30、 2 3 (Tense is not followed by modal/have/be)SC:1 2+do 3 6 T-Yes or No question(是否问句是否问句)SD:NP TenseModal/have/be X 1 2 3 SC:2 1 3 7 T-Wh-word question(特殊疑问句特殊疑问句):T-Wh-word insertionT-Yes or NO question(T-Do insertion)T-Wh-word switching T-Affix hopping 8 T-Reflexive(反身代词反身代词):SD:NP1 X NP2 (NP1=NP2
31、)1 2 3 SC 1 2 Reflexive 9 T-Imperative(祈使句祈使句)SD:Y Present V X (Y=you)1 2 3 4 SC:O 2 3 4 Of all the T-rules,T-Affix hopping is obligatory while others are optional.Practice The ordering of transformational rules:If the ordering is not followed,the transformation will produce ill-formed sentences or
32、be blocked up.9 orders.1 T-Reflexive must be applied before T-imperative.2 T-Passive must be applied before T-Reflexive.3 T-Passive must be qppiled before T-Negation.4 T-passive must be applied before T-Yes or No question.5 T-Affix is always finally applied.6 T-Agent deletion is always immediately a
33、fter TPassive.7 T-Do insertion is always applied immediately after T-Negation 8 T-Do insertion is always applied immediately after T-Yes or No question.9 The basic order of transformations for Wh-word question is:T-Wh-word insertionT-yes or No question(T-Do insertion)T-Wh-word switching T-Affix hopp
34、ingStructural ambiguity(结构歧义)ambiguity:words,phrases and sentences have more than one meaning or interpretation.Lexical ambiguity:fall,bank Structural ambiguity:Surface structural ones:she sent the questionaire over a month ago.Underlying structural ones:Lecturing professors can be amusing.1 John is
35、 eager to please.2 They decided on the train 3 They are cooking apples.4 mary hit a man with an umbrella.5 I like Eve as well as Gloria.6 She gave a book to her brother in nanjing.7 There is a bigstone house at the foot of the mountian.8 The police were ordered to stop drinking after midnight.Theme(主位)-Rheme(述位)theory:Theme:the initial element of a sentence,carries old or given information and minimal communication dynamism Rheme:new information,the rest part of a sentence except the theme.
