1、What is Grammarothe whole system and structure of a language or of languages in general, usually taken as consisting of syntax and morphology (including inflections) and sometimes also phonology and semantics. -Oxford online dictionarySimpler put:oGrammar is the system of a language. People sometime
2、s describe grammar as the rules of a language; but in fact no language has rules. If we use the word rules, we suggest that somebody created the rules first and then spoke the language, like a new game. But languages did not start like that. Languages started by people making sounds which evolved in
3、to words, phrases and sentences. No commonly-spoken language is fixed. All languages change over time. What we call grammar is simply a reflection of a language at a particular time.Unit 1: Levels of English GrammarIssues of this unit:Levels of grammar unitsmorpheme, word, phrase, clauses学习内容预告：学习内容
4、预告： 本单元之后，请预习：本单元之后，请预习：第第4、5讲：名词和名词词组、名词属格讲：名词和名词词组、名词属格 The subject of this course:Language system:Sound system, for phonology (音系学音系学)Meaning system, for semantics (语义学语义学)Rule system, for grammar study This course studies the syntactic rules.Different levels of forms in English:（Discourse Text）S
5、entenceClausePhraseWordMorpheme A）Morphemes (词素词素) English morphemeFree morphemeBound morpheme (自由词素) (粘附词素)e.g. man friende.g. im- -y take luck pre- -ess (as roots, stems，词根、词干) (as affixes，词缀)Affixes： （词缀的结构分类词缀的结构分类）1 prefix (前缀前缀)： pre-war, antibody, impossible 2 suffix (后缀后缀)： careful, farmer,
6、nicely, homely3 infix (中缀中缀)： foot feet, statesman 词缀的功能分类：词缀的功能分类： 一些词缀是句法性的句法性的(syntactic)，如：-ed标示动词的过去时，-s则标示名词的复数或动词第三人称单数等；它们被称为“Inflectional affix (屈折词缀)；其他如：-s -ed -est ”另一些词缀则是语义性的语义性的(semantic) ，例如：-er作为名词词尾，表示“one who ”的含义；它们通常被称为“Derivational affix (派生词缀)” Next, lets look more closely at
7、some examples of stems, affixations and their roles in forming English words.（I have prepared a list of the stems, prefixes and suffixes of English words, which is in a Word file. If you are interested, you can copy it after class.）1）Examples of Prefixes: a-, an- / without, lacking, not /asymmetric,
8、 apolitical bi-/ two / bicycle, bilateral 形式有差异，但意义相同的词缀： （词缀变体，由不同的语音导致的变化）： com-, con-, col-, cor-, co- / together, with / combine contract colleaguecorrespond cooperation 形式相同，但意义不同的词缀： im-, in-, il-, ir- / in, into, on / immigrant, income, illustration, irrigation (通常为名词、动词) im-, in-, il-, ir- /
9、 not / impossible, inconvinent, illegal, irresponsible （通常为形容词）反义词缀：反义词缀： inter- / between / international, interpersonal, intra-, intro- / within / intragroup, introductionsub- / under / submarine, subsonicsuper- / above, greater/ supersonic, superpower 反义词缀：反义词缀： macro- / big / macrocontrol, macro
10、economy micro- /small / microcontrol, microeconomy 同义、近义词缀：同义、近义词缀： anti- / against / antisocial, antifascist contra- / against / contradiction, contrastcounter- / against / counteract, counterpart, 同义、近义词缀：同义、近义词缀： demi- / a half or a part of / demi-god semi- / half, partly / semiconductor, semifin
11、al, hemispherefore- / before, in front of / forehead, forerunnerpre- / before / prewar, prepare, preschool 2）Examples of Suffixes:有些后缀仅仅具有句法意义有些后缀仅仅具有句法意义： -ness /added to adjectives to form nouns/carelessness, goodness, laziness, -sumption / noun form for verbs ended with -ume/ assumption, consumpt
12、ion, resumptionassume assumption有些后缀则既有句法意义，也有语义意义有些后缀则既有句法意义，也有语义意义： -able, -ible / adj. capable of, fit for / eatable, considerable, sizable, feasible 有些后缀具有不同的意义（例如相反意义）：有些后缀具有不同的意义（例如相反意义）： -er, -or, -eer / n. one who / interviewer, employer, operator, actor, engineer -ee / n. one who (usu. in p
13、assive sense)/ interviewee, employee, testee 3）Examples of Stems: -anim- / spirit / animal, unanimous -aqua- / water / aquatic sports, aquarium -auto- / self / autobiography, automobile -cap-, -capit- / head, chief / capital, captain, -dict- / say, speak / dictation, dictionary, contradiction -son-
14、/ sound / consonant, resonant, ultrasonic 小贴士：词根的典故：Cesar: Veni, Vidi, Vinci! -ven-, -vent- / come / intervene, prevent, convention -vid-, -vis- / see / visualize, vision, vista -vinc-, -van- / conquer / victory, invincible, vanquish, vanity Just a small quiz, before we go on:Do you know these words
15、 and if not, can you figure out their meanings: netizen ultramodern retrospect transplant Now lets go to the next level of grammar：the word level. B) Words: Types of English Words In terms of function （按功能分）（按功能分） Closed class words (封闭类词，虚词封闭类词，虚词) Open class words (开放类词，实词开放类词，实词)Closed class word
16、s (function words, 封闭类词，虚词封闭类词，虚词)这类词无词形变化，数量小这类词无词形变化，数量小Preposition, pronoun, determiner, conjunction, auxiliaryand in the they shallOpen class words (content words, 开放类词，实词开放类词，实词) noun, adjective, adverb, main verb, numerals (cardinal, ordinal)这类词有词形变化，数量很大这类词有词形变化，数量很大boy boys good bestthree th
17、irty borrow borrowed borrowing Types of English Words In terms of structure （按结构分）（按结构分） 1）simple words（简单词）（简单词） 2）derivative words（派生词）（派生词） 3）compound words（复合词）（复合词）1) Simple word （简单词）（简单词）Also called “morpheme word，单词素词，单词素词”（不能再分为更小的词素）（不能再分为更小的词素）e.g.: foot, head, car, near, by, in 2) Deriva
18、tives (派生词派生词) ：Formed by: stem + affixese.g.: uncover; harmless; education 【e- -duc- -at -ion】 Review:Syntactic affixes: worked, redden, gracefulSemantic affixes: superman, cooker, antibody须注意：须注意：syntactic和和semantic的区分不是绝的区分不是绝对的，句法性词缀也可能有语义价值：对的，句法性词缀也可能有语义价值： employer vs. employee trainer vs. tr
19、aineeinterviewer vs. interviewee而有的语义性词缀也可以有不同的词性：而有的语义性词缀也可以有不同的词性：beautiful vs. handfulpsychotic / neurotic antibiotic / army medic 3) Compounds (复合词复合词) ：In English, many words are formed by combining two or more words together and these words are called compound words. Content words such as noun
20、s, verbs and adjectives can all be formed in this fashion.Compounding: the combination of different words or word parts to form a new word: A) Compound Nouns: n. + n. workshop, bookshelf, lifesaver, color-film pron. + n. she-wolf, he-bear, he-man n. + v. sunrise, sunset, shoplift, power-cut v. + n.
21、scarecrow, telltale, breakfast, turncoat a. + n. greenhouse, red-tape, busybodyB) Compound Adjectives: a. +n. + ed. smooth-tongued, cold-blooded, narrow-minded, high-nosed n. + v. + ed. heart-broken, weather-beaten, home-made, heartfeltn. + v. + ing. peace-keeping, law-abiding, time-saving, truth-te
22、lling, fact-findingn. + a. blood-thirsty, ice-free, snow-white, homesick a. + n. high-grade, first-class, long-range, new-type, second-hand a. + a. bloody-red, bittersweet, dead-alive, white-hot v. + a. failsafe, diehard, talk-big prep. + n. indoor, overhead, aboveboard, onlinehyphen conj. out-of-do
23、or, life-and-death, wait-and-seeC) Compound Verbs: adv. + v. to overtake, to uplift, to uproot, to underline, to downplay, to uploadn. + n. to brainstorm, to streamline, to dog-ear, to windsurf, to showcasen. + v. to air-drop, to eavesdrop, to breastfeed, to nose-dive, to masterminda. + v. to safegu
24、ard, to whitewash, to blindfold Just a small quiz, before we go on:Can you figure out the meanings of these compounds: think-tank, kill-joy, apple-polisher half-hearted, honey-mouthed, far-reaching, ill-fitting to cold-shoulder, to mass-produce The answer to the quiz:think-tank (智库智库), kill-joy (扫兴的
25、人扫兴的人/事事), apple-polisher (马屁精马屁精) half-hearted (不热心的不热心的), honey-mouthed (甜言蜜语的甜言蜜语的), far-reaching (影响深远的影响深远的) ,ill-fitting (不合身的不合身的) to cold-shoulder (让让吃闭门羹吃闭门羹), to mass-produce (规模化生产规模化生产/批量生产批量生产) Other patterns of word formation：There are also other ways to form English words, which const
26、itute several patterns of English word-formation.Next, lets take a look at these patterns.Pattern I. Phrase-hyphen, most of the words formed this way are adjectives: a damned-if-they-do, damned-if-they-dont choice a not-so-strong team; the no-war, no-peace stalemate; the cards-on-the-table approach;
27、 the ends-justify-means philosophy; Also nouns, such as： forget-me-notPattern II. Conversions, the shift of the parts of speech of a word:n. v. to knife, to house, to water, to eyeball, to wine and dinev. n. give somebody a push, this years pick, a cheat, to give it a rethinka. n. the old, the rich,
28、 the accused, through thick and thin, Pattern III. Blending, the merge of word parts to form a new word: head + ending: smog, motel, heliport, brunch word + ending: workaholic, lunarnaut head + word: medicare, psywar, cyberpolice head + head: comsat, AmerindPattern IV. Clipping, removing some part o
29、f a word to make it shorter while keeping the meaning: A: tail-clipping: ad, lab, math, gym, biz, bikeB: head-clipping: shute, phon, plane, quakeC: head and tail clipping: fridge, flu, tecPattern V. Acronym, the formation of a new word from the initial letters of a phrase: radar : radio detecting an
30、d ranging laser: light-wave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation AIDS: acquired immunity deficiency syndrome 知 道 这 些 词 是 哪 些 词 的 缩 写 吗 ：知 道 这 些 词 是 哪 些 词 的 缩 写 吗 ： U F O , UNESCO, VIP, WHO, NATO, OPEC, ASEANPattern VI. Formation of words from proper nouns: watt, hertz, volt, ampere, cha
31、mpagne, waterloo, water-gate, xerox, Reaganomics, Thatcherism to clinton to lewenski Next, lets go to the next level of grammar：the phrase level.C) Phrases (短语、词组短语、词组)Phrases of English NPVP AdjP AdvP PrepP“P” means “phrase”. 1. NP (noun phrase 名词短语)：中心语为名词 (det.) + (modifier) + Noun + (modifier)e.
32、g.: a lazy boy still asleep the earthquake of Richter magnitude 7 with the epicenter at Yaan the hottest hotpot that I have ever tasted since I came to Sichuan NPs that might be misinterpreted： dead president sweat water blind date handwriting on the wall dry goods NPs that might be misinterpreted：
33、dead president ：美钞美钞 sweat water ：淡水淡水 blind date ：男女初次会面男女初次会面（他人安排）（他人安排） handwriting on the wall ：不祥之兆不祥之兆 dry goods ：(美美)纺织品；纺织品；(英英) 谷物谷物 2. VP (verb phrase 动词短语)：中心语为动词 simple VP: Main Verb + (modifier)e.g.: I hate English grammar deeply. complex VP: Auxiliary + Main Verb + (mod.)e.g.: I slept
34、 away the class. I would have been to Wenchuan as a volunteer worker, if I had not had to go to school now.Finite VP: (affected by tense, or person) e.g.: The boy eats the stone. The boy ate the stone. The boys have eaten the stone.Infinite VP: (unaffected by tense, or person) e.g.: You are the last
35、 person I want to see. Kissed by mosquitoes, I feel /felt itchy. VPs that might be misinterpreted：to pull ones legto bring down the houseto knock ones socks offHe is easily taken in.See the following page for the answers. VPs that might be misinterpreted：to pull ones leg ：开某人的玩笑开某人的玩笑to bring down t
36、he house ：震耳欲聋的声响震耳欲聋的声响to pull up ones socks ：鼓起勇气鼓起勇气He is easily taken in. ：他极易他极易上当受骗上当受骗。 3. AdjP (adjective phrase 形容词短语)：(modifier) + Adjective + (compliment) e.g.: The College Entrance Examinations of this year were extremely easy. English grammar learning is too boring to be enjoyable. I am
37、 more than happy to accept your invitation to dinner. 4. AdvP (adverb phrase 副词短语)：(modifier) + Adverb + (modifier) e.g.: We live far away from downtown Chengdu.Good table manner means that you have to eat in such a way that no noise emits.5. PrepP (prepositional phrase 介词短语)：(modifier) + prepositio
38、n + compliment e.g.: Dont be a giant of words, but a dwarf of deeds. Boys revolve around girls, just like the Earth around the Sun.D) Clauses and Sentences:Theoretically, a sentence a clause, because a sentence can be formed by two or more clauses.However, in many cases, a clause can be a sentence.
39、For instance: “I know it” is an independent, simple clause, but it is also a simple sentence. A sentence (and clause) has a structure of “subject + predicate”. Types of clauses: 1) Independent Clause vs. Dependent Clause: I know it. vs. You know that I know it. 2) Main Clause vs. Subordinate Clause:
40、 The police says that the driver license I have is a fake.Sentences are generally the highest unit studied by grammarians. Types of sentences: 1) Full sentence vs. Minor sentence (不完全句) A: “How are you today?” B: “Living!” Referee: “On your marks! Ready! Go!” Simple, compound, complex sentences: Com
41、pound sentence (复合句，并列句)： I dont agree with you, but Ill give my life to defend your right of saying it. Complex sentence (复杂句)： What the teachers told us in school is not the same as what it is in the society.这个句子是什么句： One more step forward, and you are dead! Compound-complex sentence： We dont care what your say, but what you do.This is the end of Lecture One. Please preview:第4、5讲：名词、名词属格
