1、lTasks: 1 writing a paper on the topic A comparison between two levels of written English of students in Nantong Universityl1.What are the types of variability in language-learner language?l2.What are the main points of systematic variability ?l3.What are the main points of non- systematic variabili
2、ty ?l4.What are the main points of contextual variability ?l5.What are the main points of free variability ?l6.What style is basic for our understanding of language learner language? Why?l7.What are the best data to use in describing interlanguage?l8.How can the variable nature of the learners inter
3、language be accurately described?l9.What is the role of contextual variability in SLA?l10.What is the role of free variability in SLA?lLanguage users (including language learners) vary in the use they make of their linguistic knowledge. This variability can be unsystematic (i.e. haphazard) or system
4、atic (two or more linguistic forms function as variants, which are used predictably according to the context).l系统变异举例系统变异举例l情境变异：在正式场合与非正式场合情境变异：在正式场合与非正式场合lHe plays basketball.(正式场合正式场合)lHe play_ basketball. (非正式场合非正式场合)l上下文语境变异：随上下文语境变化上下文语境变异：随上下文语境变化lMr. Smith lives in London. (context A)lMr. Sm
5、ith who live_ in London married my sister. (context B)l Individual varil (i.e. product of individuall Learner factors)l Systematicl Variability linguistic contextl Contextual variabilityl situationallVariability contextl In interlgl free variability Non-systematic Variability performance variability
6、l1. Systematic variability is accounted for by heterogeneous competence modell Variable rulesl Implicational analysisl(Approaches to resolving the controdiction between variation and systematicity)l2. Variability caused by situational factors(Labovs socialinguistic model)lLanguage behaviour was pred
7、ictable. Style-shifting took place systematically.l3.Variability determined by linguistic factors.lllinguisticMr.SmithlivesinBrisbane.lContextual Mr.Smithwholive_inBrisbane.lsituationlevelsofformality;fromvernaculartoformallIndividual age,motivation,personalityetc.Homogeneous competenc语言使用者拥有一系列同类规则
8、（语言能力linguistic competence），它们是语言运用(performance)能力的基础。语言知识与非语言知识分离。排除风格变异。认为所有变异都是非系统变异。Heterogeneous competencel将语境因素看成是语言使用者应用语言知识的构成部分，即语用者不仅知道什么是正确的，而且还知道在特定语境下什么是合适的。非语言知识（语用知识）也是系统的。认为语言变异可分为系统变异和非系统变异。Five axioms about how to study language use (Labov1970)1.All speakers possess several styles
9、. That is, they adapt their speech to make it fit the social context.2.Styles can be ranged along a single dimension, measured by the amount of attention paid to speech. A language user varies in the degree to which he is able to monitor his speech in different situations.3.The vernacular is the sty
10、le in which minimum attention is given to monitoring speech. It is the style associated with informal, everyday speech. It provides the most systematic data for linguistic study.4.It is not possible to tap the vernacular style of the user by systematic observation of how he performs in a formal cont
11、ext (such as an experiment).5.The only way to obtain good data on the speech of a language user is through systematic observation.l1)当社会语境和话题变化时 ,所有说话者都会在一定程度上改变他们的语言。l2)语体可以按照一个单一维度分类 ,即给予话语的注意程度。语言使用者在不同场景中会调整对自已言语的监控程度。l3)说话者对随意语体的话语给予的监控注意最少。这种语体与非正式的、日常的话语相联系 并且为语言研究提供最系统性的语料l4 )通过系统的观察语言使用者在正式
12、语境(如实验)中的表现不可能发现随意语体。l5)获得关于语言使用者话语的“好数据”的唯一途径就是通过系统观察。lThe conflict between the fourth and fifth axioms leads to what Labov calls the Observers Paradox. Good data require systematic observation, but this prevents access to the users vernacular style, which, because it is the most systematic style,
13、is the principal goal of linguistic enquiry.lAn example of how a sociolinguistic model deals with variability caused by situational factors : lLabov (1970) examined the speech patterns of New Yorkers. He collected data in various ways in order to sample a range of speech styles. These he classified
14、as1.Casual speech2.Careful speech3.Reading4.Word lists5.Minimal pairslThese styles were spread along a continuum according to the amount of attention paid by the speakers to their own speech. Thus in (1) very little attention was paid, while in (5) careful monitoring occurred.lThe important point wa
15、s that language behaviour was predictable.lLabov also deals with variability determined by linguistic factors.lHe examined the use of the copula (be) in utterances produced by speakers of Black English Vernacular in New York and found that the presence of absence of the copula was largely systematic
16、.lThus be was variability in all contexts, but certain contexts predisposed the speaker to use it more frequently than other contexts.lLabov views contextual factors as an integral part of the users ability to use his linguistic knowledge.lA homogeneous competence model accounts for a homogeneous li
17、nguistic competence in terms of invariant rules, a heterogeneous competence model such as Labovs accounts for communicative competence in terms of variable rules.lInvariant rules are categorical statements which specify the set of well-formed sentences in the grammar of a language.lVariable rules ar
18、e statements which give the probability of certain grammatical forms occurring in particular situational and linguistic contexts.lCategorical rule:lX Y/ AlWhere X refer to the variable itself, Y to its actual realization, and A the particular context or style (for example, the first sound of thing i
19、s realized as /t/ ina casual style.)lThe actual behaviour of Labovs subjects, however, was not usually categorical in this way. They tended to use one variant in one style and another variant in another style to a greater or lesser extent.l“变量规则变量规则”（variable rules)l这个规则是这个规则是Labov提出的语言变异的提出的语言变异的“概
20、率规概率规则则”。lThis states that a given variable feature, x, is menifest as either Y or Z with differing levels of probability depending on the context/style.lIt can show that speakers are much more likely to use the prestige feature,Y, in a careful style, B, than in a more casual style, A, and ,converse
21、ly, that they are less likely to use the less socially prestigious feature, Z, in B than in A.lAn alternative way of accounting for variability is by means of implicational analysis. (Decamp 1971; Bickerton 1975)lThis approach involves viewing language as an intersecting set of idiolects.lBickerton
22、(1975) used it to study variation in the language of speakers of the creole continuum in Guyana.l表1 6位说话者言语中的圭亚那克里奥尔语的变体lSpeaker Linguistic featuresl Ving Ning doz al1 0 0 0 l2 0 0 0 l3 0 0 l4 0 l5 l6 l 语言变化和共时变异的关系在克里奥尔语中是很明显的。一种克里奥尔语有几种变体(被称为“方言”) :1)基础方言具有的克里奥尔语特征最强;2)中间方言有中等层次的克里奥尔语特征;3)高级方言最接近于
23、标准语言。这3 种变体构成一个连续体 ,从最基本的基础方言向高级方言发展。Bickerton(1975)研究了圭亚那克里奥尔语 ,发现可以用蕴含量表(implicational scale)确定不同说话者在克里奥尔语连续体上的具体位置(表 1) 。表 1报告了6 位说话者对 4 个语言特征的掌握情况。说话者1 和 2 只掌握了一个语法特征 ,因此他们说的是基础方言;说话者 3 和 4 掌握了两到 3 个语言特征 ,因此处于中间方言阶段;说话者 5 和 6全部掌握了 4 个语言特征 ,已经到达了高级方言阶段。在表1 中 ,说话者对语言特征的掌握情况形成了蕴含量表 ,在每一行中如果说话者掌握了左边
24、的一个特征就表示他已经掌握了此特征右边的所有特征。例如 ,如果说话者 5 掌握了特征Ving,那么他肯定也已经掌握了另外 3 个.lBickerton identified three segments in this continuum. The basilect（下层方言） was the creole variety most distinct from the standard form of the language. The mesolect（混杂性方言） is an intervening variety, and the acrolect（上层方言） the variety c
25、losest to the standard.lNon-systematic variation:lfreevariation:Whenanewformexistsalongsideotherforms,e.g.,useofshould/hadbetter/better/haveto/must.Usuallytemporary.llperformancevariation:resultofspecificcontextdemandslContextual variability in situational context.lDickerson (1975) found that L2 lea
26、rners used the target language variants or those variants linguistically closest to the correct target language form in situation where they were able to audio-monitor their speech, and those variants linguistically distant from the correct target language form in situations where audio-monitoring w
27、as not possible.lSchmidt (1977), for instance, noted that Arabic speaking students of English became more accurate in their use of English th sounds in a formal task than in an informal task.lHe also noted that these learners did exactly the same in L2 English as they did in L1 Arabic, where they al
28、so style-shifted from relative low to high frequency in the use of th sounds, depending on whether they were speaking colloquial Arabic (associated with informal situations) or classical Arabic (associated with formal situations. )lThe patterns of style-shifting were the same in L1 and L2.lSchmidt (
29、1980) investigated second-verb ellipsis in sentences like Mary is eating an apple and Sue * a pear.lLearners from a variety of language backgrounds always included the second verb in such sentences in free oral production, but increasingly omitted it in proportion to the degree of monitoring permitt
30、ed by different tasks (i.e. elicited imitation, written sentence-combining, and grammatical judgement). vernacular style style 2 style 3 style 4 style n careful style unattended attended various elicitation grammatical speech speech tasks (e.g. imitation, judgements data data sentence combination)lA
31、t one end of the continuum is the vernacular style, which is called upon when the learner is not attending to his speech. This is the style that is both most natural and most systematic.lAt the other end of the continuum is the careful style, which is most clearly evident in tasks that require the l
32、earner to make a grammatical judgement (e.g. to say whether a sentence is correct or incorrect). The careful style is called upon when the learner is attending closely to his speech.lThus the stylistic continuum is the product of differing degrees of attention reflected in a variety of performance t
33、asks.lVariability as a result of the linguistic context occurs when two different linguistic context induce different forms even though in the target language they require the same form. e.g.lMr Smith lives in Gloucester.lMr Smith who live in Gloucester married my sister. ll vernacularl A BlSimple c
34、omplexl C Dl careful Figure 4.3 Interlanguage as the intersection of two continual lFor example, it can be predicted that, to begin with, use of the third person singular will be most frequent when the linguistic context is simple and the style careful (i.e. section C of Figure 4.3). It will be leas
35、t frequent when the linguistic context is complex and the style is vernacular (i.e. B). Whether A （i.e. complex linguistic context but casual style） leads to greater regularity of use is not certain.lIn the initial stages it is likely that a fair proportion of the variation is haphazard. That is, th
36、e learner possesses two or more forms which he uses to realize the same range of meanings. e.g.l No look my card.l Dont look my card.l(The boy was playing a card game and wanted to stop other pupils looking at his card.)lGatbonton (1978) gradual diffusion model) “扩散模式扩散模式”l“习得阶段习得阶段” (acquisition ph
37、ase)l“替换阶段替换阶段” (replacement phase)l“习得阶段习得阶段”：l学习者首先在所有的情境或语境使用一种形式。如汉学习者首先在所有的情境或语境使用一种形式。如汉语的语的“不不”；l引入引入“没没”以后，学习者将二者作为自由变体在所有以后，学习者将二者作为自由变体在所有的语境使用；的语境使用；l替换阶段：替换阶段：l学习者消除自由变体，学习者消除自由变体，“不不”和和“没没”各司其职。各司其职。lThe kinds of variability described in the previous section pose a number of problems fo
38、r SLA research, and, therefore, for our understanding of language-learner language. These problems are:1.What style is “basic” or primary?2.What are the best data to use in describing interlanguage?3.How can the variable nature of the learners interlanguage be accurately described?Tarone (1982; 1983
39、) claims that the vernacular style of interlanguage is primary/ basic, as1.it is the most stable, 2.it seems to reflect universal principles of language acquisition, 3.it is the style of unplanned discourse. lP89lAn assumption is often made in SLA research that data are only valid if they reflect th
40、e learners natural performance, which in turn is equated with the kind of spontaneous communicative behaviour associated with unplanned discourse. lThis assumption is based on the belief that the vernacular style is in some way more basic than the other interlanguage styles. lThere are two dangers t
41、o be avoided in SLA research. lThe first is to avoid making false claims about the data used. It is, for instance, misleading to base statements about a natural route on data that have been collected by means of an elicitation instrument. lThe second danger is that of mixing data from different sour
42、ces, making it impossible to distinguish one interlanguage style from another. If the data from a range of tasks (e.g. speaking, listening, reading, writing, or elicited imitation) are not kept separate, the systematicity of interlanguage will be disguised. lVariable rules systematic variabilitylDif
43、fusion model Free variabilitylImplicational scaling - systematic variability l Free variabilitylOne way is to make use of variable rules. These are rules which specify the probability of two or more variants occurring in different situational or linguistic contexts. lFor instance, learners sometimes
44、 produce WH questions which are inverted and sometimes WH questions which are not inverted. A close analysis of a corpus of learner utterances may reveal that most inverted WH questions contain the copula or auxiliary be. Similarly it may reveal that most non-inverted WH questions (but again not all
45、) contain auxiliaries other than be. lIt is possible to capture this kind of regularity by writing a variable rule which shows the level of probability of inverted and non-inverted WH questions occurring when each linguistic condition prevails. lVariable rules are best used to describe systematic va
46、riability. They cannot handle free variability. lFree variability and developmental changes can be dealt with more effectively using a diffusion model (Gatbonton 1978). lThe model posits two broad phases of development of an interlanguage rule:1.acquisition phase 2.replacement phase lIn the acquisit
47、ion phase the learner first uses a given form in his interlanguage in every situation or context and then introduces a second form. To begin with, this is used together with the first form in all environments. In other words, the two forms are used in free variation. lIn the replacement phase the le
48、arner first restricts one of the forms to a specific environment, while continuing to use both forms in all other environments. Later he restricts both forms to their respective environments. lAnothet technique that has been used to represent the variation in L2 performance is implicational scaling.
49、 lIt is used to plot the variability that occurs at any point in time (i.e. the data are collected cross-sectionally), but an assumption is made that the observed horizontal variability matches the vertical development that takes place over time. lThus, the varieties are hierarchically ordered accor
50、ding to how complex they are, with the simple varieties taken to be developmentally prior to the more complex varieties. Implicational scaling, therefore, not only handles synchronic variation, but also provides a picture of the developmental route. lVariable rules can be used to describe the variab
