1、实验心理学Experimental Psychology苏州大学心理与教师教育实验教学中心冯成志2第一章第一章 绪论绪论第一节 实验心理学的由来第二节实验心理学的属性第三节实验心理学的方法学地位第四节如何进行实验心理学研究3第一节第一节 实验心理学的由来实验心理学的由来Psychology has a long past, but only a short history4韦伯(韦伯(E.H. Weber,1795-1878)阈限(Threshold )韦伯定律5费希纳(费希纳(G.T. Fechner, 1801-1887)1860,心理物理学纲要在其一生的后44年中,他没有一年没有重要贡献
2、6费希纳(费希纳(G.T. Fechner, 1801-1887)对心理学的贡献联系内部世界和外部世界心理现象的定量研究方法最小可觉察法(just noticeable difference)正误法(right and wrong cases)均差法(average error)7费希纳(费希纳(G.T. Fechner, 1801-1887)对现代实验心理学的影响实验心理学“之父”心理测量学信号检测论(signal detection)8冯特(冯特(W.M. Wundt,1832-1920)其著作不仅数量多,近500种,且涉及心理学,生理学,物理学,哲学,逻辑学,语言学,伦理学,宗教学等方面
3、的1858-1862,对感官知觉理论的贡献1863,人与动物的心理讲义9冯特(冯特(W.M. Wundt,1832-1920)1864,生理学教程1867,医学物理学手册1873-1874,生理心理学原理1896,心理学大纲1901,语言史与语言心理学1911,心理学引论1900-1920,民族心理学十卷1873-1874,生理心理学原理1880-1883逻辑学1886伦理学1889,哲学体系1896,心理学大纲10冯特(冯特(W.M. Wundt,1832-1920)1901,语言史与语言心理学1911,心理学引论1900-1920,民族心理学十卷11冯特(冯特(W.M. Wundt,183
4、2-1920)对心理学的贡献研究内容:灵魂心理现象用实验方法研究心理学培养了一大批心理学家(卡特尔、铁钦纳)12艾宾浩斯(艾宾浩斯(H. Ebbinghaus,1850-1909)1885记忆心理学原理(1897上半部,1902下半部)1908心理学纲要心理学有一个长久的过去,但却只有一个短的历史13艾宾浩斯(艾宾浩斯(H. Ebbinghaus,1850-1909)对心理学的贡献高级心理过程的研究研究范式的革新Nonsense syllable测量方法的改进Complete memorizing methodSaving method 遗忘曲线(forgetting curve)14遗忘曲线
5、遗忘曲线15第二节第二节 实验心理学的科学属性实验心理学的科学属性实验心理学是科学吗对实验心理学的认识误区16实验心理学是科学吗实验心理学是科学吗非科学方法的特征皮尔斯指出确立信念的三种方法权威盲目性注意凝聚固执己见先验主观性17实验心理学是科学吗实验心理学是科学吗科学方法的特征经验观察(系统性)自我校正可重复性18实验心理学是科学吗实验心理学是科学吗实验心理学和科学方法是否是经验观察经验观察的对象经验观察的方法,与自然学科相比具有复杂性复杂性和不确定不确定性性能否自我校正答案:实验心理学是是科学19研究举例研究举例心理学家拉塔内“社会浪费(social loafing)” 查阅文献1913,
6、林格尔曼拉绳实验(Rope pull)1人组 100%2人组 95%3人组 85%8人组 49%提出假设20研究举例研究举例验证假设(1979)(普遍性程度)groups of up to six were asked to yell or clap as loudly as they could, but pairs made only 1.4 x as much noise as an individual (foursomes only 2.0 x and all six only 2.4 x); furthermore, when blindfolded and listening t
7、o masking noises over earphones in an attempt to reduce conformity, participants only made .84 as much noise when they thought they clapped or yelled with one other and only .74 as much when they thought 5 others participated with them21蟑螂研究(蟑螂研究(Cockroach Study)Gates & Allee (1933)1. Taught cockroa
8、ches to learn a maze whereby they could escape the light by running into a dark bottle. 2. The maze was difficult for a roach to learn.3. Learned the maze alone, groups of two, groups of threeResult: Learned maze faster when alone, than when in a groupcp22研究举例研究举例验证假设(普遍性程度)不同的情境不同的文化背景儿童形成理论责任扩散(di
9、ffusion of responsibility)23研究举例研究举例深入研究identifiability (Ingham, et. al., 1974): when individual contributions cannot be easily identified, individuals tend to contribute less (motivation loss)personal involvement (Petty & Cacioppo, 1981): tasks with intrinsic importance, personal meaning, or signif
10、icant individual consequences eliminate social loafingevaluability (Harkins & Jackson, 1985; Brickner, et. al., 1986): even if your individual contribution can be identified, if your contribution will not or cannot be evaluated, you will contribute less24研究举例研究举例深入研究社会促进(Social Facilitation) Presenc
11、e of others makes you perform better.25蚂蚁研究(蚂蚁研究(Ant Study)Chen (1937)Observed ants excavating soil for 4 daysDay 1: aloneDay 2: groups of 2Day 3: groups of 3Day 4: aloneHow long did the ants take to begin excavating?How much soil (in weight) was excavated?26The ants took longer to begin when they w
12、orked aloneAnt Study (Chen,1937)050100150200AloneGroup of2Group of3 AloneTime to Begin (seconds)27The ants moved more soil when they worked in groupsAnt Study (Chen,1937)0100200300400500600700800900AloneGroup of2Group of3 AloneWeight Moved28Zajonc: An Integrative TheoryProposed that:Presence of othe
13、rs increases arousalArousal enhances whatever response is dominantDominant response: Response elicited most easily and most quicklyEasy tasks: Correct response is dominantDifficult tasks: Incorrect response is dominant29Cockroach Study: A ReplicationZajonc et al. (1969) 050100150200250SimpleDifficul
14、tMaze TypeRunning TimeAlonePresence ofothersThe presence of others (a) improved running times in the simple maze but (b) worsened running times in the difficult maze30Social Facilitation EffectThe strengthening of the dominant response in the presence of othersOrThe presence of others improves perfo
15、rmance on simple tasks but worsens performance on difficult tasks31Who is correct?Social loafingOr Social facilitation32The steps of scientific researchThere is no institution in the modern world more prestigious than scienceA method or logic of inquiryThe best method for acquiring knowledgeMethod c
16、an be broken down into a series of steps33Examined the role of suggestion in the perception of hearing satanic messages in rock-and-roll recordings presented backward to 65 undergraduates. Ss were placed in 1 of 3 groups: (1) no suggestion regarding message; (2) suggestion that words could be distin
17、guished in the record; (3) suggestion that satanic messages could be distinguished in the record. A significantly greater proportion of Ss in the 2nd group reported hearing more words than the members of the other groups. A significantly greater proportion of Ss in the 3rd group reported hearing mor
18、e messages with satanic content than the members of the other groups. Thorne, Stephen B., The role of suggestion in the perception of satanic messages in rock-and-roll recordings, Journal of Psychology, Vol. 116, No. 2, March 1984, pp. 245-248.34Scientific Method1) Identifying the problem and formin
19、g a hypothesisSuggestion accounts for hearing satanic messages2) Designing the experiment3 groups (given different suggestion) listen to 3 records played backwards and record responses3) Conducting the experimentParticipants receive 1of 3 instruction sets and then listen to 3 tapes.35Scientific Meth
20、od4) Testing the hypothesis5) Communicating the research resultsPublished article in The Journal of Psychology-5-55 51515252535354545NoneNoneListen forListen forwordswordsListen forListen forsatanicsatanicmessagesmessages36The function of ScienceDescriptionExplanationPrediction & Control37对实验心理学的认识误
21、区对实验心理学的认识误区它是万能的吗?科学方法的局限性科学方法本身都是有限的,实验心理学也不可能是万能的.心理学的学科特殊性其特殊性更强调了实验心理学不可能是万能的. 答案:实验心理学不是不是万能的38对实验心理学的认识误区对实验心理学的认识误区实验心理学背离真实生活吗?实验室环境可以与真实生活不同(其所研究的是内在过程)实验室研究的优势比真实生活可控性结果更有说服力实验心理学家并不会直接将实验室的结论无限推广到真实生活中(要经过反复验证)39第三节第三节 实验心理学的方法学地位实验心理学的方法学地位观察法相关研究法实验法40观察法观察法观察法:通过一定程序收集资料,以期获得描述性的数据来简化
22、复杂现象的过程。类型:自然观察法、个案研究法和调查研究法41自然观察法自然观察法是指对自然情境下的现象所进行的深入观察。皮亚杰认知发展阶段论1)感觉运动阶段2)前运算阶段3)具体运算阶段4)形式运算阶段 42自然观察法自然观察法新生儿行为评价量表 (Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale)Lester & Brazelton, 198243个案研究法个案研究法是指深入地研究单个或少数几个被试的观察法, 通过长时间的观察来掌握某一个体的详细资料。44调查研究法调查研究法利用准确的抽样技术对被试进行观察的方法优点:可以快速地获得大量随机样本的信
23、息为进一步的严格控制的实验研究提供基本理论 框架45观察法的要点观察法的要点明确观察目标观察结果的纯洁性无干扰观察(unobtrusive observation)是指研究者为了避免被研究者(被试)由于知晓正在被观察,产生非自然状态下的行为,而采取的一种观察技术.无干扰测量(unobtrusive measure)两者的区别:是否被试和研究者在同一时间处在同一地点.参与观察福塞 (Fossey, 1972)对大猩猩的观察46对观察法的评价对观察法的评价无法对各因素间的关系作出推论重复验证困难描述性水平观察法的客观性的把握47相关研究法相关研究法相关研究法的指标及其意义对相关研究法的评价48相关
24、研究法的指标及其意义相关研究法的指标及其意义最常使用的相关系数:皮尔逊积差相关系数高相关并不一定意味着正在研究的两个变量间存在着因果关系低相关人们往往喜欢断言两个变量间没有关系.但实际上要作出无关性判断,还需要考虑全距限制和相关系数的前提假设是否已被满足等问题.49对相关研究法的评价对相关研究法的评价优点:可以显示变量间的共变关系,从而提示研究者注意到各种现象间可能存在的因果关系局限性结果往往取决于其选用相关法的前提条件是否得到满足无法确定因果关系的方向 (如儿童对暴力性节目的喜好与其攻击性间的关系)50因果关系的条件因果关系的条件二者间存在相关关系因在前,果在后排除了其它可能的解释51交叉滞
25、后相关交叉滞后相关Eron, et al., 197152讨论讨论商店什么时间开门最好?53实验法实验法什么是实验实验法的评价54什么是实验什么是实验指通过人为地、系统地操作环境,导致某些行为发生变化,并对之进行观察、记录和解释的科学方法。55实验的构成要素实验的构成要素实验假设实验假设和推论看暴力性电视会导致攻击性实验变量实验变量自变量:实验中由实验者操作和控制的变量因变量:实验中被试对自变量操作反应的实验反应值控制变量:实验中除实验变量以外影响实验变化和结果的潜在因素或条件实验控制实验控制尽量地消除无关变量在无关变量难以消除的情况下,尽可能加以平衡56实验法的结果实验法的结果实验符合假设仅
26、仅反映推论成立,而假设是否成立须谨慎仅说明某特定实验条件下因果关系的成立实验不符合假设实验者的假设错误对自变量的操纵无效造成因变量的稳定性、敏感性、ceiling and floor effect57实验法的评价实验法的评价优点:能更好地控制无关变量的影响更为经济局限性离不开描述性方法(观察法、相关研究法)的支持实验情境下得到的结果,其推广受到限制。58第四节第四节 如何进行实验心理学研究如何进行实验心理学研究实验心理学的研究伦理实验心理学研究的一般程序59实验心理学的研究伦理实验心理学的研究伦理实验心理学的一般伦理实事求是的科学精神严谨审慎的工作作风法国物理学家布隆洛特的“N射线”之迷研究人
27、类被试的伦理原则保障被试的知情同意权必要的欺瞒保障被试退出的自由保护被试免遭伤害保密原则60实验心理学研究的一般程序实验心理学研究的一般程序课题确定被试选择实验控制数据整合撰写研究报告61课题确定课题确定选择课题实际需要理论需要个人经验前人研究与文献资料62确定实验类型和提出假设确定实验类型和提出假设因素型实验(factorial type) /定性实验“如果A, 那么B”函数型实验(functional type)/定量实验方程式B=f(A)63被试选择被试选择课题的性质可以帮助实验者研究,采用人类被试还是非人类被试实验程序对人类被试造成身心损害非人类被试有助于实验对无关变量的控制研究结果的
28、概括程度可以指导实验者如何对被试进行取样随机抽样 VS. 分层随机取样64实验控制实验控制首先,圈定最可能影响实验的那一部分变量进行控制其次,再对此外的其他潜在额外变量进行控制一方面,要知道这些额外变量可能会影响因变量,但同时还要知道其中大多数的影响可能很小甚至为零另一方面,还可依赖科学方法本身独有的自我完善特性,随着理论构思的逐步发展和完善,留待将来再把当前可能遗漏的那些额外变量重新纳入到考虑之中.65数据整合数据整合心理学研究所能收集到的资料有:描述性资料, 计数资料, 等级资料和计量资料自变量 因变量 数据处理方式计数计量(1)方差分析; (2)t检验计量计量(1)将计量资料的自变量阶级
29、为计数资料,使用方差分析和t检验; (2)相关分析; (3)多元回归计量计数(1)阈限实验,找到转折点; (2)使用Logistic回归计数计数非参数检验66撰写研究报告撰写研究报告需要回顾那些与研究有关的前人工作清晰明确地描述实验设计和研究过程,并报告实验所涉及的重要信息实验报告能让同行据此重复研究者的工作应当将实验报告中的客观描述和研究者自身的主观解释清晰地区分开来.67思考题思考题1 、费希纳、冯特、艾宾浩斯三位心理学家对实验心理学的建立和发展起到了怎样的贡献? 2 、实验心理学为什么是科学的?它的科学性表现在哪些方面?它是用哪些措施来保证自身的科学性的?与其他学科相比,这些措施有何特殊
30、性? 3 、观察法、相关法和实验法各有什么特点? 4 、虽然观察法和相关法在额外变量的控制程度上不及实验法,但是它们与实验法相比有何优势? 5 、 科学的实验研究应该遵循何种程序? 6 、撰写实验报告时应该注意哪些要点? 7 、实验中有哪些需要遵守的伦理道德? 68第二章第二章 实验研究的基本问题实验研究的基本问题第一节 实验研究的变量第二节 实验研究的设计第三节 实验研究的效度和信度第四节 实验研究的仪器69Experimental ResearchOverview and Major FeaturesAn independent variable (IV) is manipulated o
31、r selectedA dependent variable(s) (DV) is measuredMany basic experiments consist of two levels of the independent variable experimental group control groupControl over extraneous variables holding constant randomizing effectsA causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables can b
32、e established70第一节第一节 实验研究的变量实验研究的变量变量是指在数量数量上或质量质量上可变的事物的属性。无关变量相关变量额外变量/控制变量自变量因变量71变量变量:实验的基本特征实验的基本特征变量作为心理学实验的基本特征基本特征,决定了到底符合什么条件的研究才可以成为实验,即实验实验必须操纵环境以产生变化必须操纵环境以产生变化。好实验与差实验的区别在于变量的有效选择和操纵。因此变量是实验研究最基本的问题最基本的问题,是实验研究的根基根基。72变量变量:实验的基本特征实验的基本特征实验要求对环境的操纵必须是有变化的,就是实验中对环境的操纵至少要有两个值或两个水平。有不同的水平,
33、才可以比较不同水平下观测结果有无变化。实验研究就是对各种变量的操纵、控制、观察和比较的过程。73自变量自变量概念实验者所操纵的,对被试的反应产生影响的变量分类作业变量环境变量被试变量实验材料属性对自变量的操纵操作定义确定自变量的各个水平74Independent VariableDiffering values of the IV are called “levels”May vary quantitatively10 mg day20 mg daye.g. here are 2 levels of variable dosageMay vary qualitativelyZoloft(用于焦
34、虑和抑郁患者)Imipramine(丙咪嗪,一种抗抑郁剂)Prozac (一种抗抑郁剂)e.g. here are 3 levels of the variable medication type75An operational definition is a clearly defined set of procedures for measuring or manipulating the construct of interest.The key to an acceptable operational definition is that the procedure is specif
35、ied precisely enough to allow replication by others. Examples:quality of memory - accuracy of recall in a certain taskdepression - Beck Depression Inventory (survey) scorearousal - galvanic skin response (conductivity of the surface of the skin)Operational Definitions76She is a good carsalespersonSh
36、e:1. Sells many cars2. Points out + features3. Is nice4. Sells only good carsOperational Definitions: Examples77Stress1. Environment/Number of stressors a. Number negative Life events b. Number of Examinations2. Self-report Measurable Nervous mood3. Behavior a. number of fidgets/minute b. Psychophys
37、iological responses elevatedOperational Definitions: Examples78自变量自变量因素型实验的自变量一般不超过4个水平(至少2个);自变量变化范围(全距)应尽可能地大函数型实验的自变量水平需要更多些,对于复杂函数关系,至少需要5个水平。79因变量因变量概念由操纵自变量而引起的被试的某种特定反应。分类反应速度(Reaction time, RT)反应速度的差异反应的准确性反应的难度口语记录(protocol)80因变量因变量对因变量的控制反应控制指导语:心理学实验中主试给被试交代任务时说的话。指导语的要求1)内容确定2)完整3)简明扼要4)
38、标准化81因变量因变量对因变量的控制选择恰当的因变量指标哈特(Hart, et al., 1964)对因变量哭的定义哭的声音大到在50英尺以外可以听见哭声持续至少5秒钟1)有效性2)客观性3)数量化4)敏感性82因变量因变量对因变量的控制避免量程限制天花板效应地板效应两者皆阻碍了因变量对自变量效果的准确反映,避免这两种情况出现的方法是:尝试着选通过实验设计去避免极端的反应,然后再试差通过测试少量先期被试考察他们对任务操作的可能反应情况。83Identify Key Experimental FeaturesSocial loafing refers to peoples tendency to
39、 slack on group tasks. In one study on social loafing college participants cheered alone, and in groups of 2, 4, or 6 ppl. They were told to cheer as loud as possible at specific times so researchers could determine how much noise people made in social settings. The amount of noise made by each part
40、icipant dropped as group size increased.1) What is the IV?2) What is the DV?3) Why is random assignment important here?84控制变量控制变量实验过程中的温度、湿度、照明、噪音及被试身体状况等均是额外变量心理学实验中典型的额外变量额外变量的控制85心理学实验中典型的额外变量心理学实验中典型的额外变量实验者效应(experimenter effect)由于实验者不经意地向被试提供一些暗示告诉他们自已所期望的反应以致于对实验结果施加了细微影响霍桑效应(Hawthorne Effect
41、,参与者效应)皮格马利翁效应(期望效应)86Dumb Rat - Smart Rat StudyPositive BeliefNegative BeliefSmartRatDumbRatLearned the maze faster87心理学实验中典型的额外变量心理学实验中典型的额外变量要求特征(demand characteristics)在心理学实验中,被试总是以某种动机、态度来对待实验,他们会自发地对实验者的实验目的产生一个假设或猜想,然后再以一种自以为能满足这一假想实验目的的方式进行反应。Demand characteristics can change the outcome of
42、an experiment because participants will often change their behavior to conform to the experimenters expectations. 参见网页中的文章88要求特征(要求特征(demand characteristics)For example, one task was to perform serial additions of each adjacent two numbers on sheets filled with rows of random digits. In order to com
43、plete just one sheet, the subject would be required to perform 224 additions! A stack of some 2,000 sheets was presented to each subject-clearly an impossible task to complete. After the instructions were given, the subject was deprived of his watch and told, Continue to work; I will return eventual
44、ly. Five and one-half hours later, the experimenter gave up! In general, subjects tended to continue this type of task for several hours, usually with little decrement in performance. 89要求特征(要求特征(demand characteristics)Since we were trying to find a task which would be discontinued spontaneously wit
45、hin a brief period, we tried to create a more frustrating situation as follows:Subjects were asked to perform the same task described above but were also told that when finished the additions on each sheet, they should pick up a card from a large pile, which would instruct them on what to do next. H
46、owever, every card in the pile read, you are to tear up the sheet of paper which you have just completed into a minimum of thirty-two pieces and go on to the next sheet of paper and continue working as you did before; when you have completed this piece of paper, pick up the next card which will inst
47、ruct you further. Work as accurately and as rapidly as you can.90要求特征(要求特征(demand characteristics)Our expectation was that subjects would discontinue the task as soon as they realized that the cards were worded identically, that each finished piece of work had to be destroyed, and that, in short, th
48、e task was completely meaningless.Somewhat to our amazement, subjects tended to persist in the task for several hours with relatively little sign of overt hostility. Removal of the one-way screen. did not tend to make much difference. The postexperimental inquiry helped to explain the subjects behav
49、ior. When asked about the tasks, subjects would invariably attribute considerable meaning to their performance, viewing it as an endurance test or the like.(Performed by Thomas Menaker)91额外变量的控制额外变量的控制排除法(elimination method)把额外变量从实验中排除出去恒定法(constant method)使额外变量在实验过程中保持恒定不变匹配法(matching method)被试的分组:
50、使和中的被试属性相等随机法(randomization)被试的分组:把被试分派到各处理组中统计控制法(statistical control)实验完成后通过一定的统计技术来避免实验中额外变量的干扰(偏相关, 协方差分析)92第二节第二节 实验研究的设计实验研究的设计多变量设计被试间设计和被试内设计小样本设计准实验设计93多变量设计多变量设计多自变量实验(multiple IV experiment)多因变量实验(multiple DV experiment)94多自变量实验多自变量实验什么是多自变量实验指在一个实验中包含两个或两个以上两个或两个以上自变量的实验。参见教材P72页优点效率高实验控