1、第二章 聚集与流散（Compact vs.Diffusive）英语句子有严谨的主谓结构。这个结构通常由名词性短语(NP)和动词性短语(VP)构成。主语不可或缺，谓语动词是句子的中心，两者协调一致(SV concord)，提纲挚领，聚集各种关系网络(connective-nexus)。因此，英语句子主次分明，层次清楚，前呼后拥，严密规范，句式呈“聚集型”(compactness)。相比之下，汉语的主谓结构要复杂得多。主语不仅形式多样，而且可有可无：它可表示施事、受事，也可表示时间、地点；可用名词、动词，也可用形容词、数量词；句子可以没有主语，也可以省略主语，还可以变换主语并予以隐含。汉语的谓语也
2、复杂多样：它可以是动词、名词或形容词；可以是一个动词，也可以是多个动词，还可以没有动词；它可以是一个单词，也可以是多个词组。汉语不受形态的约束，没有主谓形式协调一致的关系，也就没有这种关系可以驾驭全句。汉语主谓结构具有很大的多样性、复杂性和灵活性，因而句式呈“流散型”(diffusiveness)。英语的主语和谓语动词搭配，形成句子的核心(kernel)，谓语动词控制句子主要成分的格局。句子尽管错综复杂，千变万化，但根据谓语动词的类别和特征，都可以把英语的主谓结构归结为五种基本句型，即，SV，SVP，SVO，SVoO，SVOC：基本句型(一)主语十动词 The telephone rang.T
3、he meeting has begun.基本句型(二)主语十动词十表语 We are students.She appeared cheerful.基本句型(三)主语十动词十宾语 Labour created man.The news surprised me.基本句型(四)主语十动词十间接宾语十直接宾语 She sang us a song.I sent him a letter.基本句型(五)主语十动词十宾语十宾语补足语 He painted the door green.We elected him our monitor.英语各种长短句子，一般都可以看作是这五种基本句型及其变式、扩展
4、、组合、省略或倒装：1、基本句型的变式。上述五种基本句型都是陈述句、肯定句和主动句。由这些基本句型可以转换为以下几种主要的变式：a)陈述句变疑问句。陈述句通过改变语序或使用助动词可以变为疑问句，如：Has the meeting begun?Did you send him a letter?b)肯定句变否定句。肯定句通过使用否定词、助动词可以变为否定句，如：We are not students.The telephone did not ring.c)主动句变被动句。基本句型(三)、(四)、（五）的大部分主动句通过使用助动词(和介词)、改变词序和动词的形态可以变为被动句，如：The doo
5、r was painted green.A letter was sent to him.d)“There十be十主语”结构。这种表示“存在”的句型可以看作是基本句型(一)的不同形式：There was a meeting yesterday.There came a knock at the door.2基本句型的扩展。上述五种基本句型及其变式，还可以通过以下方式加以扩展：a)增加修饰语。修饰语主要是定语和状语，可以采用单词或词组，也可以采用从句，如：Now the integrated circuit has reduced by many times the size of the co
6、mputer of which it forms a part,thus creating a new generation of portable minicomputers.When Chou En-lais door opened they saw a slender man of more than average height with gleaming eyes and a face so striking that it bordered on the beautiful.b)扩展基本句型的成分。基本句型的成分是单词，若采用词组或从句，句型结构即得以扩展：The kaleidos
7、cope of shifting interests of the nations during the negotiation made it impossible to sort out the“winners”and“losers”.The structure of the steel and the resulting properties will depend on how hot the steel gets and how quickly or slowly it is cooled.3基本句型的组合。基本句型及其变式、扩展，还可以通过并列连词或标点连接起来，组合成并列句或并列
8、复合句：A few stars are known which are hardly bigger than the earth,but the majority are so large that hundreds of thousands of earths could be packed inside each and leave room to spare;here and there we come upon a giant star large enough to contain millions of millions of earths.Our Charter,being a
9、historical product,has its limitations,and although we have always considered that strict respect for the principles it embodies is the key to considerable progress in international coexistence,we now venture to suggest certain changes,which are technical rather than political,to improve the machine
10、ry available to the Organization,since the lofty aims to which we aspire will be the more readily attainable the better the machinery at our disposal.4、基本句型的省略。基本句型及其变式、扩展和组合，根据表达的需要，可以省略某些成分或词语。一般说来，省略的部分可以复原，省略句仍然可以看作是基本句型的变体。1)To err is human,to forgive(is)divine.2)If one had but two heads and ne
11、ither required sleep!3)Every language has its peculiarities;they are established by usage,and whether(they are)right or wrong,they must be complied with.4)A serious matter this for you and me.5、基本句型的倒装。基本句型及其变式、扩展和组合，根据表达的需要，可以调换其正常的话序。一般说来，调换的语序可以复原，倒装句也可以看作是基本句型的变体：1)The greatest truths are the si
12、mplest,so are the greatest men.2)Neither could theory do without practice,nor(could)practice(do)without theory.3)Such treatment I did not expect,for I never had a patron before.4)Naked you want it,naked youll have it 5)Deal with us nobly，women though we be.6)Never was night so still;never was a sky
13、so deeply blue,nor stars so bright and serene.英语注重句子结构完整，注重结构形式规范，句子尽管繁简交替、长短交错，但形式仍不致流散，其主要原因是英语有许多聚集句子的手段，如形态标志及连接词语使各种成分关系明确，“it”、“there”这类填补词(expletives)使句子结构完整，等等。英语句子复杂而不流散的另一重要原因是：句子成分之间或词语之间必须在人称、数、性和意义等方面保持协调一致的关系（concord或agreement)。这一原则包括以下三方面：1语法一致(grammatical concord)：即在语法形式上保持主语和谓语动词之间数
14、与人称的一致(如动词单数第三人称加-s-es)，主语和表语之间数的一致(如She is a studentThey are students)，宾语和宾语补足语之间数的一致(如I found the boy a bright pupilI found the boys bright pupils)，人称代词、某些限定词和它们的照应对象之间的人称、数或性的一致(如The girl has seen her mother)，等等。2意义一致(notional concord)：即在意义上保持一致，如主语形式为复数，但意义为单数，谓语动词依意义采取单数形式，反之亦然：Two thousand dol
15、lars is more than he can afford.My family are all fond of playing table tennis.非限定动词作状语或定语，其逻辑主语或逻辑宾语必须与句子的主语或被修饰语保持协调一致：1)Sent to zoos in Tokyo and other cities,the pandas are reported to have settled down very well 2)Mary felt sad not to have been invited to the banquet 3)Tradition has it that the
16、 island-city was founded in A.D.451 when a coastdwelling people called the Venetti fled across the lagoon before advancing Hun barbarians.3就近原则(principle of proximity)：即谓语动词的人称和数往往和其最靠近的词语保持一致，如：Either you or I am going.Neither you，nor I，nor anyone else knows the answer 英语句子成分之间这种协调一致的原则，使句子结构受到形态的约
17、束，因而句式严谨、规范、刻板，缺乏弹性。相比之下，汉语的主谓结构要复杂得多。主语不仅形式多样，而且可有可无：它可表示施事、受事，也可表示时间、地点；可用名词、动词，也可用形容词、数量词；句子可以没有主语，也可以省略主语，还可以变换主语并予以隐含。1)文章翻译完了。(受事主语)The article has been translated.2)全市到处在兴建新工厂。（地点主语)New factories are being built all over the city.3)现在正下着毛毛雨。(时间主语)Its drizzling at the moment.4)累得我站不起来了。(无主句)Im
18、 so exhausted that I cant stand up.5)他有个女儿，()在北京工作，()已经打电话去了，（）听说明天就能回来。(变换主语并予省略)He has a daughter,who works in Beijing.Someone has phoned her and it is said that she will be back tomorrow 6)凤姐还欲问时，只听二门上传出云板，连叩四下，将凤姐惊醒。(曹雪芹：红楼梦)Before Xifeng could ask more she was woken with a start by four blows o
19、n the chimebar at the second gate.7)如今没奈何，把你雇在间壁人家放牛，每月可以得他几钱银子，你又有现成饭吃，只在明日就要去了。(吴敬梓：儒林外史)There is no way out but to set you to work looking after our neighbours buffalo.Youll make a little money every month,and youll get your meals there too.You are to start tomorrow.汉语的谓语也复杂多样：它可以是动词、名词或形容词；可以是一个
20、动词，也可以是多个动词，还可以没有动词；它可以是一个单词，也可以是多个词组。1)天高云淡。(形容词作谓语)The sky is high and the clouds are pale 2)他出国留学去了。(连动式谓语)He has gone abroad for further studies.3)我介绍他加入协会。(兼语式谓语)I recommended him for membership of the association.4)这项合同经理要签名。(主谓词组作谓语)This contract should be signed by the manager.汉语不受形态的约束，没有主谓
21、形式协调一致的关系，也就没有这种关系可以驾驭全句。汉语主谓结构具有很大的多样性、复杂性和灵活性，因而句式呈“流散型”(diffusiveness)。由于汉语重内在意念而不重外在形式，汉语的句型也就难以象英语那样以谓语动词为中心从形式上去划分。汉语句型的研究结果表明，按照句子结构去划分句型，不仅型式量大繁杂(一般归纳为几十个句型不等，有的多达130多个句型)，而且难以概括齐全，颇有争议。英语重形合(hypotaxis)，较宜以成分格局为主、功能意义为辅来划分句型；汉语重意合(parataxis)，较宜以功能意义为主、成分格局为辅来划分句型。按照表意功能及表达形式，汉语句型大体可以分为九大类：1话
22、题句，其基本格式是“话题语十评论语”，如：开车他没有经验。He is inexperienced in driving.婚姻的事我自己作主。As for my marriage,Ill make my own decision.这艘船是中国制造的。This ship was built in China.2施事句，其基本格式是“施事语十动作语”，如：他在学习开车。He is learning how to drive.她点头表示同意。She nodded her agreement.雨水促使杂草生长。The rain caused the weeds to grow.3关系句，即表达各种关系的
23、复句，如：(因为)他天天练习开车，(所以)很快就学会了。He soon learnt how to drive because of his daily practice.如处理得当，问题不难解决。The problem will not be difficult to solve,if properly handled.只要虚心，就会进步。Provided you are modest,youll surely make progress.4呼叹句，即交谈中相互呼唤、应对或感叹的句子，如：是呀，他车开得真好!Yes，he is an excellent driver!多么新鲜的水果啊!How
24、 fresh the fruit is!看她多精神！Look how energetic she is!5祈使句，即表达要求、命令或请求的句子，如：请勿酒后开车。Please dont drink and drive.不要总以为自己对。Dont think you are always right.别管我，救火要紧！Dont bother about me!Put out the fire first!6存现句，即表示人或事物存在或消失的句子，如：黑暗中来了一部车子。A car is coming in the dark.前面是一片稻田。There is a stretch of rice f
25、ields ahead.还有许多工作要做。Much remains to be done.7有无句，其基本格式是“领有者十(没)有十被领有者”，如：他有两部小车。He has two cars 她有热情，有朝气。She is full of vigor and enthusiasm.此事有百利而无一弊。It has every advantage and no drawback.8描写句，其基本格式是“主题语十描写语(形容词)”，如：这部小车很新。This car is brand-new.房间干干净净。The room is neat and tidy.这东西又便宜又好。It is chea
26、p but good.9说明句，其基本格式是“主题语十说明语(名词)”，如：今天星期日。Today is Sunday 我上海人。Im from Shanghai.这箱子八十磅。This box weighs eighty pounds.尽管汉语可以从功能意义划分出几大类型，但其表现形式仍十分复杂。汉语是重语感、重变通的语言，组句的自由度很大，句子长长短短，不求形式齐整，而求意思通顺。许多表达形式灵活多变，往往靠约定俗成。从形式看，汉语似乎有不少非逻辑表达方式(illogical expressions)，试比较：晒太阳 to bask in the sun 晒衣服 to sun ones c
27、lothes 吃食堂 to have ones meals in the mess 吃苹果 to eat an apple 还他的债 to pay him ones debts 还他的钱 to pay him back 住四人 four people live in 住旅馆 to stay at a hotel 在家养病 to recuperate at home 闭目养神 to sit in repose with ones eyes closed 救火 fire fighting 救国 to save the nation 打扫卫生 to do some cleaning 打扫房间 to
28、clean a room 补充缺额 to fill a vacancy 补充人力 to replenish manpower 恢复疲劳 to get refreshed 恢复健康 to recover ones health 汉语缺乏形态变化，缺乏词性标记，较少使用连接词，语句的结构关系较难分辨，因而语法歧义的现象也比较多，如：烤羊肉 roast mutton to roast mutton 两个乡干部 two village cadres cadres from two villages 鸡不吃了 The chicken has stopped eating.I wont eat any m
29、ore chicken.汉语偏重意会，略于形式，因而脱离一定语境的语句也较易产生语法歧义，以下各例也是如此：1)他欠你的钱他+欠你钱/他欠你的+钱)2)准备了两年的食物(准备了两年的+食物准备了+两年的食物)3)对于他的态度（对于+他的态度对于他的+态度)4)我和他的老师(我和他的+老师/我+和他的老师)5)热爱人民的总理(热爱+人民的总理热爱人民的+总理)6)神秘的少女的心(神秘的+少女的心神秘的少女的+心)7)找到了孩子的妈妈（找到了孩子的+妈妈找到了+孩子的妈妈）8)喜欢的是她喜欢她她喜欢)9)研究方法很重要(研究的方法对方法进行研究)10)是前天发的电报(回答“这是什么”回答“什么时候
30、发电报”)11)财务组应该清查(“财务组”是施事：清查别人“财务组”是受事：被清查)l2)我差一点没跟他结婚(想跟他结婚，事实上也跟他结婚了不想跟他结婚，也没有跟他结婚跟不跟他结婚无所谓，不过事实上没有跟他结婚)英语受形态变化规则的约束，有不少词性标记，常用关系词和连接词，语句的结构关系比较清楚，因而语法歧义比汉语少。英语语法歧义主要见于表意形式含糊的结构，尤其是模棱两可的修饰关系，如：1）John saw Mary with the binoculars.a)约翰用望远镜看到了玛丽。(with短语修饰saw)b)约翰看见玛丽带着一个望远镜。(with短语修饰Mary)2)All of the
31、 arrows didnt hit the target.a)不是所有的箭都射中靶子。(部分否定)b)所有的箭都没有射中靶子。(全部否定)3)He loves the dog more than his wife.a)他爱这只狗胜过爱他的妻子。(than he loves his wife)b)他比他妻子更爱这只狗。(than his wife loves the dog)4)I knew that you had seen him before I met you.a)我知道在我见到你之前，你就看见过他了。（=I knew that,before I met you,you had seen
32、 him）b)在我见到你之前我就知道你看见过他了。（=Before I met you,I knew that you had seen him）汉语句式的多样化还表现在：有整句(full sentence)，也有大量的零句(minor sentence)。整句有主谓结构；零句没有主谓结构，由词或词组构成。零句是汉语的基本句型，可以作整句的主语，也可以作整句的谓语。整句由零句组成，因而复杂多样，灵活多变。整句与零句混合交错，组成了流水句。吕叔湘曾指出，“汉语口语里特多流水句，一个小句接一个小句，很多地方可断可连。”这些句式流泻铺排，主谓难分，主从难辨，形散神聚，富有节奏，不仅常见于口语，书面语
33、也不乏其例：1)接着，他继续设想，鸡又生鸡，用鸡卖钱，钱买母牛。母牛繁殖，卖牛得钱，用钱放债，这么一连串的发财计划，当然也不能算是生产的计划。(马南邨：燕山夜话)He went on indulging in wishful thinking.Chickens would breed more chickens.Selling them would bring him money.With this he could buy cows.The cows would breed too and selling oxen would make more money for him.With the
34、 money,he could become a money lender.Such a succession of steps for getting rich,of course,had nothing at all to do with production.2)河面大小船只泊定后，莫不点了小小的油灯，拉了篷。各个船上皆在后舱烧了火，用铁鼎罐煮饭，饭焖熟后，又换锅子熬油，哗的把蔬菜倒进热锅里去。一切齐全了，各人蹲在舱板上三碗五碗把腹中填满后，天已夜了。(沈从文：鸭巢围的夜)After the boats large and small had moored,all lit tiny oi
35、l lamps and fixed up mat canopies.Rice was boiled in iron cauldrons over fires in the stern,and once this was cooked the vegetables were fried in another pan of sizzling oil.When the meal was ready,everyone aboard could wolf down three or five bowls.By then it was dark.(Gladys Yang译)3)芙蓉镇街面不大。十几家铺子、
36、几十户住家紧紧夹着一条青石板街。铺子和铺子是那样的挤密，以至一家煮狗肉，满街闻香气；以至谁家娃儿跌交碰脱牙、打了碗，街坊邻里心中都有数，以至妹娃家的私房话，年轻夫妇的打情骂俏，都常常被隔壁邻居听了去，传为一镇的秘闻趣事，笑料谈资。偶尔某户人家弟兄内讧，夫妻斗殴整条街道便会骚动起来，人们往来奔走，相告相劝，如同一河受惊的鸭群，半天不得平息。不是逢圩的日子，街两边的住户还会从各自的阁楼上朝街对面的阁楼搭长竹竿，晾晒一应布物：衣衫裤子，裙子被子。山风吹过，但见通街上空“万国旗”纷纷扬扬，红红绿绿，五花八门。再加上悬挂在各家瓦檐下的串串红辣椒，束束金黄色的苞谷种，个个白里泛青的葫芦瓜，形成两条颜色富丽
37、的夹街彩带人在下边过，鸡在下边啼，猫狗在下边梭窜，另有一种风情，另成一番景象。(古华：芙蓉镇)The main street of Hibiscus was not big.Paved with flagstones it was wedged between a dozen shops and a few scores of houses.These buildings were so packed together that if one shop stewed dogmeat,the aroma filled the whole street;if some child fell and
38、 knocked out a tooth or smashed a bowl,the whole street knew of it;neighbors often overheard the secrets girls confided to each other and the jokes between young married couples,then regaled the whole town with these titbits.If brothers fell out or husband and wife came to blows,the whole place was
39、in a turmoil as all rushed to intercede.On days when there was no market,people fixed up long bamboo poles between their upstairs windows and those across the street,to sun their clothes and bedding.The wind blowing from the hills made these flutter like flags all the colors of the rainbow.And the c
40、lusters of red peppers,golden maize cobs,pale green calabashes and gourds hanging from the eaves formed bright borders on either side.Below,people came and went,cocks crowed,cats and dogs padded to and froit was a distinctive sight.(杨宪益译)英语里类似汉语的零句叫做破句(fragments)。这类句式没有完整的主谓结构，只有词、短语或从句，在英语里原属语法错误，一
41、般仅用于对话、标题、告示等特定的语境，或用作修辞手段。与汉语相比，英语的破句不属于常规句式。汉语流散型句式与口语有密切的关系。“现代汉语的书面语同口语基本上是一致的，它是在口语的基础上产生和发展起来的。口语是书面语的源泉，对书面语始终起着决定性的作用。”总之，英语重形合，造句注重形式接应(formal cohesion)，要求结构完整，句子以形寓意，以法摄神，因而严密规范，采用的是焦点句法；汉语重意合，造句注重意念连贯(semantic coherence)，不求结构齐整，句子以意役形，以神统法，因而流泻铺排，采用的是散点句法。王力曾指出，“就句子的结构而论，西洋语言是法治的，中国语言是人治的
42、。”所谓“法治”，即句子的形式严格受到语法的制约，如句子必须有主语和谓语动词，及物动词必须有宾语，这些“不管用得着用不着，总要呆板地求句子形式的一律”。所谓“人治”，即句子比较不受形式的约束，可以因表意的需要而加以变通，词语的分合伸缩比较灵活，“用得着就用，用不着就不用”，只要双方意思明白，就可以了。汉语的句子可以没有主语(如“下雨了”)、没有动词(如“我二十岁”)，动词该带宾语的却不一定带宾语(如“词典来了，赶快去买吧”)；英语句子除了必须有主语和谓语动词外，及物动词一定要带宾语，找不到宾语也要用主语的反身代词来作“替身”，如“Insects hide themselves in winte
43、r”，或用“it”来代替主语或宾语：“We are born to slave it for our lord.”(WThackeray)至于虚词，如介词、连接词，用与不用，英语都有较为严格的区分，汉语则灵活得多了。英语有综合语的特征，受形态的约束，因而“语法是硬的，没有弹性”；汉语是分析语，不受形态的约束，因而“语法是软的，富于弹性”。对此，OJespersen曾指出：“analysis means suppleness,and synthesis means rigidity;in analytic languages you have the power of kaleidoscopically arranging and rearranging the elements that in synthetic forms are in rigid connexion”
