1、Lexicon/lexicologylThe benefits brought about by the study of lexiconlA.Make better use of Modern DictionarieslB.Have better methods to remember new words and phrasesl 1.Alphabetical Table of Hard Words in 1604l one-word definitionl 2.Modern dictionary by DR.Samuel Johnson in 1755l All important wor
2、ds/good meanings/examplesl 3.Oxford English Dictionary l Word history-etymology,study of the origin of words,study of the historical development of words lLDOCE Longman Dictionary of Contemporary EnglishlOALD-Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current EnglishlCDOEL-Collin Dictionary of the Engli
3、sh LanguagelDAI-A Dictionary of American IdiomslLongman Dictionary of English CollocationslThe Oxford Study ThesaurusWhat information about a word is covered in the dictionary?l Command of a word:l pronunciation,l spelling,l word class,l meaning in the context,l collocation,l its relations with othe
4、r words in the word family,l synonyms and antonyms,etc.le.g.lAlert lEtymology lFrench alertelfromItalian all erta on the lookout lalla to the,on the l Alert l adj.l Vigilantly attentive;watchful:l 警觉的，警惕的；注意的：l alert to danger;an alert bank guard.l 警惕危险；警觉的银行保安人员l See:awarel Mentally responsive and
5、perceptive;quick.l 思维敏捷的思维反应迅速且感觉灵敏的；快速敏捷的l Brisk or lively in action:l 活泼的行动轻快或有活力的：l the birds alert hopping from branch to branch.l 小鸟在树枝间欢快地跳跃l alertl n.l A signal that warns of attack or danger:l 警报警告进攻或危险的信号：l Sirens sounded the alert for an air raid.l 空袭警报的警笛响起l See:alarml A condition or peri
6、od of heightened watchfulness or preparation for action:l 警戒状态高度警惕或准备随时行动的状态或阶段：l Nuclear-armed bombers were put on alert during the crisis.l 核武装轰炸机在危机期间负责警戒l alertl l v.tr.l a.lert.ed;a.lert.ing;a.lerts;l To notify of approaching danger or action;warn:l 向报警对临近的危险或行动发出通知；警告：l a flashing red light th
7、at alerted motorists to trouble ahead.l 闪烁的红灯警告摩托车手前面有危险l on the alertl Watchful and prepared for danger,emergency,or opportunity:l 警戒着，防备着注意着且防备着危险、意外或机会：l bird watchers on the alert for a rare species.l 看守者人密切注意稀有鸟类Alert l Taking notes is one of the best ways to stay alert in lectures.l The author
8、ities should have been alert to the possibility of invasion.l We need to alert staff to the crisis facing the company.l Be on the alert for anyone acting suspiciously.l Red-alertl Alertly/alertnessl Slow to/obtusel Quick-wittedl Methods used to remember a wordl Restore vt.Bring back to a former cond
9、itionl Arrange v.prepare to planl Flee v.ran away froml Gym n.a place where people do physical exercise or build their bodyl Set apart v.l Interview n.v.l Intolerable a.too bad to be endured.Methods used to remember a wordl-lTo restore balance to my life,I force myself back into the real world.I cal
10、l people,arrange to meet with the few remaining friends who havent fled New York City.I try to at least get to the gym,so as to set apart the weekend from the rest of my week.I arrange interviews for stories,doctors appointments-anything to get me out of the house and connected with others.lBut some
11、times being face is too much.I see a friend and her ringing laughter is intolerable-the noise of conversation in the restaurant,unbearable.I make my excuses and flee.I re-enter my apartment and run to the computer as though it were a place of safety.l Command of a word:l pronunciation,l spelling,l w
12、ord classl meaning in the context,l collocation,l its relations with other words in the word family,synonyms and antonyms,etc.lLearning objectives:l1.the definition of word l2.the formation of word(The form)l3.Word meaning P.55 l1.What is word?l Hard to define scientifically.l Three senses of Wordl
13、lThe smallest significant unit of speech.l by AristotlelNot valid in contemporary linguistic theory.lMorphemelBloomfield distinguishes between two types of linguistic forms:free forms and bound forms.lAccording to Bloomfield,a word is a minimal free form.l 1.Basic terms in Lexicon l vocabulary 词汇/wo
14、rd 词/lexical item词项l e.g.check,checks,checked,checkingl Vocabulary refers to a complete inventory of the words in a language.l Word as a general term and as a specific term.P.56l A unit of vocabulary is generally referred to as a lexical item.l lmorpheme p.61l free morpheme(lexical free morpheme/fun
15、ctional free morpheme)l functional morpheme(derivational morpheme/flectional morpheme)l2.identification of wordsl3.classification of wordsl2.word formation P.65 P.73l affixationl compounding/compositionl conversionl blending:smog,motell backformation:editorl shortening/abbreviation:ad.Memo.l (clippe
16、d words/initialisms/acronym)affixationl1.a-in the state of/in the process of lE.g.New York City,already aclutter with candidates for mayor,got one with a difference last week.l -the corridor outside the Congressmans office was asquish with trod-upon fruit.l2.nonnotl nonmusician/nondegradable/noncomm
17、itted/noninvolved/l new meaningnot important/no value/false l Nonbook/nonfriend/nonhero/nonovellE.g The debate on the subject-was the usual non-debate.l3.itis a disease 炎症l arthritis/bronchitis l -be addicted tol golfitis/vacationitis/interviewitisl l from Modern English Lexicology by LU Guoqiangl p
18、el 的词源学意思为逐,推.以下的17个单词就是由其加前缀或后缀而构成的!l compel“逐之做某事”强迫,迫使l com-=加强compellable 可强迫的-able=be able to 可的l compeller 强迫他人者,驱使别人者l -er=people who 者dispel 驱散 dis-=apart 分散,散开l expel 逐出,赶出,开除 ex-=out 出,外expellable 可逐出的 expellant 驱除的,赶出的 l-ant=的 expeller 逐出者,驱逐者 expellee 被驱逐(出国)者 l ee=被的人(eg.employer-employ
19、er)impel l 推动,激励 l im-=intensify 加强 l impeller 推动者,推动器propel 推进,推动l pro-=before 向前propeller 推进器,螺旋桨,推进者propel lent 推进的,推进物,推进者-ent=n/adj.suffix l Jimmy 很宅？l Jimmy is a very indoorsy person because he hates camping.lWhat better than playing games and enjoying the luxury of your house?says an indoorsm
20、an.l“Sean,an avid indoorsman,is highly regarded for his skill at video games and computer poundingl Syntactic switch to frontal positionl E.g.round-the-clock discussionl the ahead-of-schedule general election(adverbial modifier)l a break-in period l a walk-on appearance(verbal phrase)l take-home pay
21、l a keep-fit class(to-infinitive)l weather modification ideascompoundinglE.g.l白领为提升软实力下血本lWhite Collars jostle to increase soft power at any cost.l 20 世纪 90 年代初，哈佛大学教授约瑟夫奈首创“软实力”（Soft Power）概念，于此相对的就是“硬实力”（约等于下文的“硬指标”）。根据词汇应用的原则，词汇的用法经常是可以类推的，所以下文的“软技能”就是soft skills，当然类推也要遵循目的语语言习惯，最好是多查资料，以免造成不必要的错
22、误。l 关于soft skills的解释，网上可以查到：Soft skills is a sociological term relating to a persons EQ(Emotional Intelligence Quotient),the cluster of personality traits,social graces,communication,language,personal habits,friendliness,and optimism that characterize relationships with other people.l3.Lexical chang
23、e P.79llexical change proper P.72lMorpho-syntactical change P.77lSemantic change P.78lPhonological change P.80lOrthographic change P.82l1.broadening：thing,propositionl2.narrowing:deer,gearl3.meaning shift:beadl4.class shift:stump,hoglGunnars case was brought before the September meeting of the Thing
24、 with old Njal sitting in the judgment seat.lThing:A political or judicial assemblylProposition:proposal-any thinglEg.A difficult proposition,l a paying propositionl5.elevation:词义的升格lMarshall:lPerson who raises horses-general lExecutive:lAn ordinary person who do something that has been carefully pl
25、anned-manager in an organization or company who helps make important decisionslCraftsman,shrewd,nimble,chiffon l 6.degradation/degeneration 词义的降格l Villain,boor,churl:l Farm-hand-a bad person or criminal(ignorant,rude,foolish)l Genteel:l from or relating to a good social class-quiet and polite,often
26、in an exaggerated way;from,or pretending to be from,a high social class(装绅士派头的，假斯文的）used,except by the ignorant,in mockery.l Cunning,gaudy,gossip 陆国强 编著 上海外语教育出版社l1:A general Survey of a wordl2:Morphological structure and Word-Formation l3.Motivation(理据)l4.Semantic Features l5.Change of Meaningl6.Se
27、mantic Classification of wordsl7.Association and collocation 联想与搭配l8.English Idiomsl9.American English 10.Application and comprehension(运用和理解）现代英语词汇学概论 张韵斐 主编 北京师范大学出版社l Part Onel A general survey of English vocabularyl Part Twol Morphological structure of English wordsl A.Morphemesl B.Word-Formatio
28、nlPart Threel1.Word meaning and semantic features 2.Polysemy and homonymyl3.Sense relations between words 4.Meaning and contextl5.changes in word meaninglPart Four lEnglish idiomslAmerican EnglishlEnglish dictionaries and how to use themlObjectives:l Discuss Lexical Meaning lTeaching Focus:l Meaning
29、/The reference theory l Meaning of“Meaning”l Motivation of meaningl Components of meaning1.The Study of MeaningSemantics:the study of meaning英文semantics来自希腊语semantikos，意思是significant(有意义)。是研究语言意义的科学。Linguistic semantics:the study of the meaning of linguistic units,words and sentences in particularTh
30、e meaning of words:Lexical semanticsThe meaning of sentences:Propositional meaning,compositional meaningThe meaning of utterances:PragmaticsMeaning has always been a central topic in human scholarship.Meaning has been studied for thousands of years by philosophers,logicians and linguists,e.g.Plato&A
31、ristotle.Logicians and philosophers have tended to concentrate on a restricted range of sentences(typically,statements,or propositions)within a single language.The linguistic approach is broader in scope,aiming to study the properties of meaning in a systematic and objective way,with reference to as
32、 wide a range of utterances and languages as possible.2.The meaning of MEANINGThe word“meaning”has different meanings.C.K.Ogden&I.A.Richards(1923).The Meaning of Meaning.1.John means to write.2.A green light means to go.3.Health means everything.4.His look was full of meaning.5.What is the meaning o
33、f life?6.What does cornea mean?The transparent,convex,anterior portion of the outer fibrous coat of the eyeball that covers the iris and the pupil and is continuous with the sclera.Lexical meaning?1.Whats word meaning?Sign dog(linguistic form)/dg/(phonological form):a common animal with four legs,fu
34、r,and a tail.Dogs are kept as pets or trained to guard places,find drugs etcWord meaning can be defined a reciprocal relation between name and the thing it represents.(词的意义是名称与事物的联系）Meaning is what the form stands for.E.g.Desk is something you sit at and you do your work.What is reference?(所指关系）It i
35、s the relationship between language and the world.dog 狗 referent By means of reference,the speaker indicates which thing in this world(including persons)are being talked about.It is the relationship between words and the things,actions,events and qualities they stand for.The reference theory(所指理论）Th
36、e naming theoryP.107The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to,or stands for,is known as the referential theory.According to this theory,the linguistic forms or symbols,in other words,the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they sta
37、nd for.In other words,only when a connection has been established between the linguistic sign and a referent,does the sign become meaningful.The limitations of this theory are obvious.Can you identify them?P.107Not every word has a reference.Grammatical words like but,if,and do not refer to anything
38、.Words like Santa Claus,God,ghost,fairy,demon and dragon refer to imaginary things,which do not exist in reality.Abstract words like sincerity,love dont have a concrete referent in the world.The semantic triangle 语义三角WordsConceptsThings:Ogden&Richardsthought/concept/sensesymbolizes refers tosymbol r
39、eferent(word)stands for (object)What is concept?It is the general idea and meaning which is associated with a word or symbol in a persons mind.Whats the relationship between meaning and concept?They are closely connected but not identical.They are both related directly to referent and are notions of
40、 words but belong to different categories.Concept,which is beyond language,is the result of human cognition,reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Concept is universal to all men alike regardless of culture,race,language and so on.But meaning belongs to language,so it is restricted to lang
41、uage use.So it is restricted to language use.Even in the same language,the same concept can be expressed in different words.Horsesteed Sense and reference 涵义与指称Sense refers to the main features,the defining properties an entity has.The sense of desk:a piece of furniture with a flap top and four legs
42、,at which one reads and writesSense is equivalent to concept.The concept of desk may also be called the sense of desk.Reference:the concrete entities a particular desk in the world.Every word that has meaning has sense but not every word has reference.(每个词都有语义，但不一定都有所指）。Geoffrey Leech(1974,1981).Sem
43、antics:The Study of Meaning Seven types of meaning:Conceptual meaningConnotative meaningSocial meaningAffective meaningReflected meaningCollocative meaningThematic meaningAssociativeMeaning(1)Conceptual meaningAlso called denotative or cognitive meaning.Refers to logical,cognitive or denotative cont
44、ent.Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes,or refers to.Denotative meaningWoman:human,female,adultPig:animal,domesticated,having a long broad snout,having a thick,fat body covered with coarse bristles(2)Connotative meaningThe communicative value an expression has by
45、virtue of what it refers to,over and above its purely conceptual content.A multitude of additional,non-criterial properties,including not only physical characteristics but also psychological and social properties,as well as typical features.Involving the real world experience one associates with an
46、expression when one uses or hears it.Unstable:they vary considerably according to culture,historical period,and the experience of the individual.Any characteristic of the referent,identified subjectively or objectively,may contribute to the connotative meaning of the expression which denotes it.Conn
47、otative meaningWoman:frail,prone to tears,emotional,inconstant,gentle,compassionate,hard-workingTom is a pig.That fellow is a tiger.Home,sweet home,there is no place like home.Famous/notoriousStatesman/politicianResolute/stubborn/obstinateThey put up a stubborn resistance.(3)Social meaningWhat a pie
48、ce of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.Dialect:the language of a geographical region or of a social class.Time:the language of the 18th c.,etc.Province:language of law,of science,of advertising,etc.Status:polite,colloquial,slang,etc.Modality:language of memoranda,lectures,j
49、okes,etc.Singularity:the style of Dickens,etc.domicile:very formal,officialresidence:formalabode:poetichome:generalsteed:poetichorse:generalnag:slanggee-gee:baby languageThe five clocks by Martin JoosFrozen Formal Consultative Casual IntimateFormal InformalStylistic meaningFormal/informal(colloquial
50、,slang)Throw/cast/chuckThey chucked a tone at the cops,and then did a bunk with the loot.After casting a stone at the police,they escaped with the money.(4)Affective meaningReflecting the personal feelings of the speaker,including his attitude to the listener,or his attitude to something he is talki
