1、Chapter 6 Microbial Nutrition and Metabolism6.1 Nutrient requirements6.2 Nutritional types of microorganisms6.3 Uptake of nutrients by the cell6.3 Culture Media6.4 An Overview of Metabolism 6.5 Fermentation:The Embden-Meyerhof Pathway 6.6 Respiration and Electron Transport6.7 The Balance Sheet of Ae
2、robic Respiration and Energy Storage6.8 An Overview of Alternate Modes of Energy Generation6.9 Biosynthesis of Monomers6.10 Nitrogen fixationChapter outlineConceptsMicroorganisms require about 10 elements in large quantities,in part because they are used to construct carbohydrates,lipids,proteins,an
3、d nucleic acids.Several other elements are needed in very small amount and are parts of enzymes and cofactors.All microorganisms can be placed in one of a few nutritional categories on the bases of their requirements for carbon,energy and hydrogen atoms or electrons.Nutrient molecules frequently can
4、not cross selectively permeable plasma membranes through passive diffusion.They must be transported by one of three major mechanisms involving the use of membrane carrier proteins.Trace Elements Microbes require very small amounts of other mineral elements,such as iron,copper,molybdenum,and zinc;the
5、se are referred to as trace elements.Most are essential for activity of certain enzymes,usually as cofactors.Growth Factors Amino acids for protein synthesisPurines and pyrimidines for nucleic acid synthesis.Vitamins are small organic molecules that usually make up all or part enzyme cofactors,and o
6、nly very small amounts are required for growth.(1)Amino acids (2)Purines and pyrimidines,(3)VitaminsMajor nutritional typeSources of energy,hydrogen/electrons,and carbonRepresentative microorganismsPhotoautotroph(Photolithotroph)Light energy,inorganic hydrogen/electron(H/e-)donor,CO2 carbon sourceAl
7、gae,Purple and green bacteria,CyanobacteriaPhotoheterotroph(Photoorganotroph)Light energy,inorganic H/e-donor,Organic carbon sourcePurple nonsulfur bacteria,Green sulfur bacteriaChemoautotroph(Chemolithotroph)Chemical energy source(inorganic),Inorganic H/e-donor,CO2 carbon sourceSulfur-oxdizing bact
8、eria,Hydrogen bacteria,Nitrifying bacteriaChemoheterotroph(Chenoorganotroph)Chemical energy source(organic),Organic H/e-donor,Organic carbon sourceMost bacteria,fungi,protozoa6.2 Nutritional types of microorganismsAlgae,CyanobacteriaCO2+H2O Light+Chlorophyll （CH2O）+O2Purple and green bacteriaCO2+2H2
9、S Light+bacteriochlorophyll（CH2O）+H2O+2SPurple nonsulfur bacteria(Rhodospirillum)CO2+2CH3CHOHCH3 Light+bacteriochlorophyll（CH2O）+H2O+2CH3COCH3 PhotoautotrophPhotoheterotrophPropertyCyanobacteriaGreen and purple bacteriaPurple nonsulfur bacteriaPhoto-pigment ChlorophyllBcteriochlorophyllBcteriochloro
10、phyllO2 productionYesNoNoElectron donorsH2OH2,H2S,SH2,H2S,SCarbon sourceCO2CO2Organic/CO2Primary products of energy conversionATP+NADPHATPATPProperties of microbial photosynthetic systems ChemoautotrophNitrifying bacteria2 NH4+3 O2 2 NO2-+2 H2O+4 H+132 KcalBacteriaElectron donorElectron acceptorProd
11、uctsAlcaligens and Pseudomonas sp.H2O2H2ONitrobacterNO2-O2NO3-,H2ONitrosomonasNH4+O2NO2-,H2ODesulfovibrioH2SO4 2-H2O.H2SThiobacillus denitrificansS0.H2SNO3-SO4 2-,N2Thiobacillus ferrooxidansFe2+O2Fe3+,H2ONutrient molecules frequently cannot cross selectively permeable plasma membranes through passiv
12、e diffusion and must be transported by one of three major mechanisms involving the use of membrane carrier proteins.6.3 Uptake of nutrients 1.Phagocytosis Protozoa2.Permeability absorption Most microorganisms Passive transport simple diffusion Facilitated diffusion Active transport Group translocati
13、onPassive diffusion is the process in which molecules move from a region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration as a result of random thermal agitation.A few substances,such as glycerol,can cross the plasma membrane by passive diffusion.Passive diffusionThe rate of diffusion across se
14、lectively permeable membranes is greatly increased by the use of carrier proteins,sometimes called permeases,which are embedded in the plasina membrane.Since the diffusion process is aided by a carrier,it is called facilitated diffusion.The rate of facilitated diffusion increases with the concentrat
15、ioti gradient much more rapidly and at lower concentrations of the diffusing molecule than that of passive diffusion Facilitated diffusionThe membrane carrier can change conformation after binding an external molecule and subsequently release the molecule on the cell interior.It then returns to the
16、outward oriented position and is ready to bind another solute molecule.A model of facilitated diffusionBecause there is no energy input,molecules will continue to enter only as long as their concentration is greater on the outside.T4007.gifActive transport is the transport of solute molecules to hig
17、her concentrations,or against a concentration gradient,with the use of metabolic energy input.Active transportT4008.gifGroup translocationThe best-known group translocation system is the phosphoenolpyruvate:sugar phosphotransferase system(PTS),which transports a variety of sugars into procaryotic ce
18、lls while Simultaneously phosphorylating them using phosphoenolpyruvate(PEP)as the phosphate donor.Group translocationPEP+sugar(outside)pyruvate+sugar-P(inside)The phosphoenolpyruvate:sugar phosphotransferase system of E.coli.The following components are involved in the system:phosphoenolpyruvate,PE
19、P;enzyme 1,E I;the low molecular weight heat-stable protein,HPr;enzyme 11,E II,-and enzyme III,E III.ItemsPassive diffusionFacilitated diffusionActive transportGroup translocationcarrier proteins NonYesYesYestransport speedSlow Rapid Rapid Rapid against gradientNonNonYesYestransport moleculesNo spec
20、ificity Specificity Specificity Specificity metabolic energy No needNeedNeedNeedSolutes moleculesNot changedChangedChangedChangedSimple comparison of transport systems Culture media are needed to grow microorganisms in the laboratory and to carry out specialized procedures like microbial identificat
21、ion,water and food analysis,and the isolation of particular microorganisms.A wide variety of media is available for these and other purposes.Culture media Pure cultures can be obtained through the use of spread plates,streak plates,or pour plates and are required for the careful study of an individu
22、al microbial species.Pure cultures 6.4 An Overview of MetabolismMetabolism is the total of all chemical reactions occurring in the cell.A simplified view of cell metabolism depicts how catabolic degradative reactions supply energy needed for cell functions and how anabolic reactions bring about the
23、synthesis of cell components from nutrients.Note that in anabolism,nutrients from the environment or those generated from catabolic reactions are converted to cell components,whereas in catabolism,energy sources from the environment are converted to waste products 6.5 Fermentation:The Embden-Meyerho
24、f Pathway A fermentation is an internally balanced oxidation-reduction reaction in which some atoms of the energy source(electron donor)become more reduced whereas others become more oxidized,and energy is produced by substrate-level phosphorylation.Energy conservation in fermentation and respiratio
25、nEmbden-Meyerhof pathway Glycolysis:A common biochemical pathway for the fermentation of glucose is glycolysis,also named the Embden-Meyerhof pathway for its major discoverers.Can be divided into three major stages.Stages I and II:Preparatory and Redox Reactions Stage I:A series of preparatory rearr
26、angements:reactions that do not involve oxidation-reduction and do not release energy but that lead to the production from glucose of two molecules of the key intermediate,glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate.Stage II:Oxidation-reduction occurs,energy is conserved in the form of ATP,and two molecules of pyruv
27、ate are formed.Stage III:A second oxidation-reduction reaction occurs and fermentation products(for example,ethanol and CO2,or lactic acid)are formed.Stage III:Production of Fermentation ProductsGlucose Fermentation:Net and Practical Results The ultimate result of glycolysis is the consumption of gl
28、ucose,the net synthesis of two ATPs,and the production of fermentation products.6.6 Respiration and Electron Transport The discussion of respiration deals with both the carbon and electron transformations:(1)the biochemical pathways involved in the transformation of organic carbon to CO2(2)the way e
29、lectrons are transferred from the organic compound to the terminal electron acceptor,driving ATP synthesis at the expense of the proton motive force.Respiration:in which molecular oxygen or some other oxidant serves as the terminal electron acceptor(1)to accept electrons from an electron donor and t
30、ransfer them to an electron acceptorElectron TransportElectron transport systems are composed of membrane associated electron carriers.These systems have two basic functions:(2)to conserve some of the energy released during electron transfer for synthesis of ATP.In addition,one class of nonprotein e
31、lectron carriers is known,the lipid-soluble quinones.Types of oxidation-reduction enzymes involved in electron transport(1)NADH dehydrogenases(2)Riboflavin-containing electron carriers,generally called flavoproteins(3)iron-sulfur proteins(4)Cytochromes Flavin mononucleotide(FMN)(riboflavin phosphate
32、,a hydrogen atom carrier).The site of oxidation-reduction is the same in FMN and flavin-adeninedinucleotide(FAD).Computer-generated model of cytochrome c.6.7 The Balance Sheet of Aerobic Respiration and Energy StorageEnergy Storage ATP and Cell Yield The amount of ATP produced by an organism has a d
33、irect effect on cell yield.cell yield is directly proportional to the amount of ATP produced has been confirmed from experimental studies on the growth yields of various microorganisms and implies that the energy costs for assembly of macromolecules are much the same for all microorganisms.ATP and C
34、ell YieldEnergy StorageMost microorganisms produce insoluble polymers that can later be oxidized for the production of ATP.Polymer formation is important to the cell for two reasons.First,potential energy is stored in a stable form,and second,insoluble polymers have little effect on the internal osm
35、otic pressure of cells.Storage polymers make possible the storage of energy in a readily accessible form that does not interfere with other cellular processes.6.8 An Overview of Alternate Modes of Energy GenerationAnaerobic RespirationChemolithotrophyPhototrophyImportance of the Proton Motive Force
36、to Alternate Bioenergetic Strategies Energetics and carbon flow in(a)aerobic respiration,(b)anaerobic respiration,(c)chemolithotrophic metabolism,and(d)phototrophic;metabolism Monomers of Polysaccharides:SugarsMonomers of Proteins:Amino AcidsMonomers of Nucleic Acids:NucleotidesMonomers of Lipids:Fa
37、tty AcidsBiosynthesis of Peptidoglycan 6.9 Biosynthesis of MonomersSugar metabolism1.Polysaccharides are synthesized from activated forms of hexoses such as UDPG,whose structure is shown here.2.Glycogen is biosynthesized from adenosine-phosphoglucose by the sequential addition of glucose.3.Pentoses
38、for nucleic acid synthesis are formed by decarboxylation of hexoses like glucose-6-phosphate.4.Gluconeogenesis Synthesis of the various amino acids in a family frequently requires many separate enzymatically catalyzed steps starting from the parent amino acid Biosynthesis of purines and pyrimidines(
39、a)The precursors of the purine skeleton(b)Inosinic acid,the precursor of all purine nucleotides.(c)The precursors of the pyrimidine skeleton,orotic acid.(d)Uridylate,the precursor of all pyrimidine nucleotides.Uridylate is formed from orotate following a decarboxylation and the addition of ribose-5p
40、hosphate.Shown is the biosynthesis of the C16 fatty arid,plamitate.The condensa tion of acetyl-ACP and malonyl-ACP forms acetoacetylCoA.liach successive addition of an acetyl unit comes from malonyl-CoA.The biosynthesis of fatty acidsBiosynthesis of PeptidoglycanMost bacterial cell walls contain a l
41、arge,complex peptidoglycan molecule consisting of long polysaccharide chains made of alternating NAM and NAG residues.NAM is N-acetylmuramic acid and NAG is N-acetylglucosamine.The pentapeptide contains L-lysine in S.aureus peptidoglycan,and diaminopimelic acid(DAP)in E.coli.Inhibition by bacitracin
42、,cycloserine,and vancomycin.Peptidoglycan synthesis:(a)Transport of peptidoglycan precursors across the cytoplasmic membrane to the growing point of the cell wall.(b)The transpeptidation reaction that leads to the final cross-linking of two peptidoglycan chains.Penicillin inhibits this reaction.6.10
43、 Nitrogen fixation The utilization of nitrogen gas(N2)as a source of nitrogen is called nitrogen fixation and is a property of only certain prokaryotes.From the table below it can be seen that a variety of prokaryotes,both anaerobic and aerobic,fix nitrogen.There are some bacteria,called symbiotic,t
44、hat fix nitrogen only in association with certain plants.As far as is currently known,no eukaryotic organisms fix nitrogen.Some nitrogen-fixing organismsFree-living aerobesChemo-organotrophsphototrophsChemo-lithotrophsAzotobacter spp.AzomonasBeijerinckiaBacillus polymyxaCyanobacteria(various,but not
45、 all)AlcaligenesThiobacillusN2 fixation occurs only under anoxic conditionFree-living anaerobesChemo-organotrophsphototrophsChemo-lithotrophsBacteria:Clostridium spp.DesulfovibioDesulfotomacullumBacteria:ChlorobiumRhodospirillumArchaea:MethanosarcinaMethanoccousSome nitrogen-fixing organismsN2 fixat
46、ion occurs only under anoxic conditionOne of the most interesting and important nitrogen-fixation bacteria is certain type,such as Rhizobium Bradyrhizobium、Sinorhizobium or Azorhzobium,they can build up symbiosis relationship with leguminous plant.(oxidized)(Reduced)PyruvateAcetyl-CoA+CO2+CoAPyruvat
47、e flavodoxin oxidoreductaseFlavodoxinFlavodoxinSteps in nitrogen fixation:reduction of N2 to NH3.Electrons are supplied from dinitrogenase reductase to dinitrogenase one at a time,and each electron supplied is associated with the hydrolysis of two ATPs.(Reduced)Dinitrogenase ProductNitrogenase subst
48、rateDinitrogenase reductase(Reduced)Dinitrogenase reductase(oxidized)ATPADP+PiDinitrogenase(oxidized)2NH3N2C2H4H2C2H42H+Nitro-genase enzyme complex N N4HH2HN NH2H HN NH2H H3N NH3Overall reaction8H+8e-+N2 2NH3+H216-24 ATP 16-24ADP+16-24PiREVIEW QUESTIONS1.Define the terms chemoorganotroph,chemolithot
49、roph,photoautotroph,and photoheterotroph.2.Why are carbon and nitrogen macronutrients while cobalt is a micronutrient?3.Where in glycolysis is NADH produced?Where is NADH consumed?4.What is an electron carrier?Give three examples of electron carriers and indicate their oxidized and reduced forms.5.Knowing the function of the electron transport chain,can you imagine an organism that could live if it completely lacked the components(for example,cytochromes)needed for an electron transport chain?(Hint:Focus your answer on the mechanism of ATPase.)
