1、American Transcendentalism“超验”一词由来w德文 transzendent 在康德的哲学中，同“内在”相对，意为超出一切可能的经验之上，非人的认识能力可以达到。感觉之外的物质世界“自在之物”是客观存在的，它作用于人们的感官而产生感觉；但是人们通过感觉只能认识到它的现象而不可能是其本体。w超验主义一词“transcendentalism”来源于拉丁动词“transcend ere”,意为“超越界限”。超验主义被定义为人通过知觉获取知识的能力。强调知觉的力量,相信人们可以通过感官认知外部世界。认为自然界中的一切事物都是精神的象征。精神高于物质,且无处不在。它强调个人的重要
2、性,认为个人才是社会中最重要的因素。“相信你自己”(爱默生语)是超验主义者的座右铭。爱默生的观点为抒发个性、主张自由的浪漫主义文学奠定了思想基础。超验主义兴起的原因（1）：wAgainst rationality in the 18th century West:Nature based on experiments and logic.wAdvocating irrationality and inner power of insight;emphasis on perceptual thinking.超验主义兴起的原因（2）：wAmerican Independence in politi
3、cs,economy,culture and literature among priests and intellectuals wEuropean Romanticism,Neo-Platonism,Kants idealism,Oriental mysticism,Hinduism,Confucius and Mencius theorywIndustrialization in the 1850s and social,democratic problems超验主义兴起的原因（3）：wEmersonian Transcendentalism:Rejection of Calvinism
4、 and its God-as-Center logicAcceptation of Kantian Apriorism and European Romantic thoughtsAdvocating mans intuition to find truth with a belief in man as GodBasis on Humanism,emphasizing mans value,fighting authority,worshiping intuition,liberation of individuality,breaking bondage of theology and
5、dogmas加尔文教派观点w Five points of Calvinism Total depravity Unconditional election Limited atonement Irresistible grace Perseverance of the saints Nature of the atonement wChurch belonging no state or governmentReturn to康德先验论w先验论 唯心主义认识论的一种表现形式。同唯物主 义反映论根本对立。认为人的知识是先于感觉经验、先于社会实践的东西，是先天就有的。亦称先验主义、唯 心主义先验
6、论。古希腊哲学家柏拉图主张，在现实世界之 外，有一个超越经验、超越时空、永恒存在的理念世界；人 的经验是无法认识理念世界的；人们关于理念世界的 知识是先天地存在于人的心灵之中的，通过后天的学习，可以把它们回忆起来。德国古典哲学家康德认为，赋予知 识以普遍性必然性的范畴形式，是主体先天具有的，是先 于经验而存在的。先验论割断人们的认识（指理性认识）同感觉经验与社会实践的联系，必然否认认识同客观世 界的反映与被反映的联系，从而把认识变成与生俱来的、主观自生的。先验论是天才论和英雄史观的理论基础。Return to美国超验主义wExistence period:1830s-1860s，Harvard
7、 University,Cambridge,Massachusetts as center;Transcendental Club in Boston;The DialwTenet:liberation movement of thinking;touching reform in religion,philosophy,and in literature超验主义的核心观点：w超验：超越经验，针对波士顿的唯一神教派(Unitarianism)的冷淡古板的理性主义(Rationality)而提的（即浪漫主义文学的特点）：“承认人类具有本能了解或认识真理的能力,能够超过感官获取知识”。wTen k
8、ey TenetsIn Nature,we are able to transcend the truths we know in the Natural world.Materialism is bad.Society is the source of corruption.Our intuition and natural instincts guide us to do the right things.In nature,we are uncorrupted.Conformity is wrong.The nature of human beings is good.Knowledge
9、 comes from experience.We have a direct relationship with God.Technology is wrong.Human beings and nature are beautiful in and of themselves.美国超验主义思想第一个内核：圣灵 wDivinity or Holy Spirit:Omnipresent and Omnipotent超验主义者认为灵魂或圣灵是宇宙中最重要的元素。圣灵是全能的，无所不在的。万物来自于圣灵，归属于圣灵。于是，超验主义者们代表了一种新的看待世界的方法。这显然是对18世纪牛顿学说的反抗。
10、18世纪一种被普遍接受的观点认为世界是由物质组成的。这也是对美国的资本化，机械化的反抗，对美国在世界事务中领跑而忽略精神富足的反抗。美国超验主义思想第二个内核：个人wIndividuality:individual as important social element社会的更新进步只有通过个人的更新进步才能得以实现。人类自我完善的可能性（反加尔文教思想；反资本主义的de-humanization）。爱默生认为，人是按上帝的形象造的，只是比上帝差一点点。无处不在的上帝通过在人的灵魂中“起作用”而使人变的神圣、圣洁。人要依靠自己得到精神世界的完美。个人因与圣灵的相交而变的神圣。至此，超验主义又代
11、表了一种新的看待人的方式。世界属于每个人，世界为他而存在，人应决定自己的存在方式。每个人通过塑造世界而塑造了自己，也通过塑造自己而塑造世界。美国超验主义思想第三个内核：象征 wSymbolism:nature as embodiment and symbol of Holy Spirit对于超验主义者们来说，自然不再单纯是物质的，宇宙是由自然和圣灵组成的。他们认为自然是最纯洁的，对人的道德有最神圣的影响，他们提倡直接用内心的洞察力去感知这位有灵的无所不在的上帝。在自然中，他们感到完全与外在世界融合了，完全沉浸在自然中并成为其中的一部分。灵魂超越了身体的物质界限而分享了上帝的无所不知。也就是说，
12、灵魂完全超越了个体的有限成为上帝的一部分。爱默生认为上帝的圣灵无处不在，不仅在人的灵魂中，也贯穿在自然中。Representatives of Transcendentalist Literature爱默生爱默生Ralph Waldo Emerson(1803-1882)wAmerican essayist and poetwLeader of the philosophical movement of transcendentalismwInfluenced by such schools of thought as English romanticism,Neo-Platonism,and
13、 Hindu philosophy，Emerson is noted for his skill in presenting his ideas eloquently and in poetic language.Ralph Waldo Emerson The Ralph Waldo Emerson House爱默生 超验主义的思想根源（1）：wFamilyFather as a famous priest in BostonFamily members encouragement of him to be bold,radical,curious,rebellious and energet
14、icDoubt of Truth and AuthorityChallenge against traditional belief Rejection the position of a priest 爱默生超验主义的思想根源（2）：wHistorical backgroundFrontiers and West as base challenging East and South politics Common Mans era in 1840s with President;Jeffersons Natural Aristocrat to all white man being equa
15、l Improvement in culture and education with establishment of industrial and urban societyIntroduction of European romanticismDoubt of Puritanism爱默生超验主义的思想根源（3）wNeo-Platonism:two extremes of God as Holy light and complete darkness;Gods light unable to lighten all the world;all things in the world wit
16、h Holy Light;human soul closest to Holy LightwOriental mysticismMajor works wNaturea book which declared the birth of TranscendentalismwSome other essays:The Poet Self-reliance The American Scholar(Americans Declaration of Intellectual Independence)论自然核心思想（1）：w“我们为什么不可以也跟宇宙建立一种直接的关系呢?为什么不能有一种凭直觉而不是依
17、靠传统的诗歌与哲学?为什么不能有一种不是依据他们的历史传统而是直接启示我们的宗教呢?”(Why should not we also enjoy an original relation to the universe?Why should not we have a poetry and philosophy of insight and not of tradition,and a religion by revelation to us,and not the history of theirs?)。这实际上是在宣布一种独立精神。论自然核心思想（2）：w“每个人自身的状貌便是对他提出的疑
18、难所做的形象的答复。”(Every mans condition is a solution in hieroglyphic to those inquires he would put.),这句话给他的观点“人是自己的神”做了恰当的注解。以独立的、全新的眼光看待自然界。论自然核心思想（3）：w爱默生从哲学角度考虑,认为宇宙由自然界和精神组成(Philosophically considered,the universe is composed of Nature and the Soul.),并且肯定了人的地位和作用。论自然核心思想（4）：w大自然具有丰富意蕴。爱默生眼中的自然都是人的精神化
19、身,欢乐的自然呈现着欢乐,哀愁的自然则又显得哀愁。“为了寻得孤身独处,人有必要走出书斋,退出社会,回归自然。”(To go into solitude,a man needs to retire as much from his chamber as from society.)。论自然核心思想（5）：w他主张修心养性,只有在孤身独处时人的各种内在天赋才可得到充分发展。同时爱默生又写到“自然界即外界多种事物给予的完整的印象”(the integrity of impression made by manifold nature objects.)。表明爱默生视大千世界为一有机整体的浪漫主义自然
20、观。他主张人应回到原始物质状态去,单纯地观察世界。论自然核心思想（6）：w“我站在空地上,头沐浴在和煦的空气里,仰望着无垠的太空,小我的一切都消失了,我变成了一只透明的眼球;本身不复存在;我洞察一切;上帝的精气在我周身循环;我成为上帝的一部分。”(Standing on the bare ground,my head bathed by the blithe air and uplifted into infinite space,all mean egotism vanishes.I become a transparent eyeball;I am nothing;I see all;th
21、e currents of the Universal Being circulate through me;I am part or particle of God.)。这是表明爱默生超验主义观的名言,强调人与自然界的和谐一致。这是爱默生浪漫主义思想的主体,也是论自然一文的钥匙。论自然核心思想（7）：w“大自然永远带着精神的色彩”(Nature always wears the colors of the spirit.),自然界是精神的象征物(Nature is the symbol of spirit.)。他主张发挥人的超验作用。在他看来,精神渗透人的心灵和自然界,物质为精神之象征。世界
22、万物有其表状,也有其内涵(particular natural facts are symbols of particular spiritual facts)。论自然核心思想（8）：w宇宙间存在着一种无所不容、无所不在、扬善抑恶的力量,他称之为上帝或超灵(the Over Soul)。超灵为人所共用,每个人的思想都存在于超灵中,人以直觉观能同他交流。论自然核心思想（9）：w爱默生赞美人的发展潜力无限,推崇人的至高无上,提出“人就是一切,世界为人而存在,人决定自己的命运,人要自信、自尊、自助”。人有神性,只要潜心修养,洁身自好,便可成为完人;而个人的完善则是世界进步的基础。Henry Davi
23、d Thoreau(1817-1862)wan American author,naturalist,transcendentalist,tax resister,development critic,surveyor,sage writer and philosopher.He is best known for his book Walden,a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings,and his essay,Civil Disobedience,an argument for individual resistanc
24、e to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state.Henry David Thoreau(1817-1862)wLife wWorks wWalden LifewBorn in a common family in New EnglandwGraduated from Harvard,but only stayed at home and helped family businesswA friend of EmersonwActive in social life and had a strong sense of ju
25、stice(Example:He once refused to pay a poll-tax of 2 dollars because he felt the tax was unfair,and thus he was jailed.And later he wrote an essay named Civil Disobedience which advocated passive resistance to unjust laws and influenced Gandhi in India.(甘地的非暴力不合作运动)wnot successful as a writer and li
26、ved in obscurity all his lifeWorks(Selected)wA Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers,1849 wResistance to Civil Government/Civil Disobedience/On the Duty of Civil Disobedience,1849 wWalden;or,Life in the Woods,1854 wExcursions,1863 wThe Maine Woods,1864 wSlavery in Massachusetts,1854 Works(Selecte
27、d)wA Plea for Captain John Brown,1859 wCape Cod,1865 wA Yankee in Canada,1866 wComplete Works,1929(5 vols.)wCollected Poems,1943 WaldenwBackground informationwSynopsis(contents)wThemes Background information about WaldenA reproduction of Thoreaus cabin with a statue of Thoreau Background information
28、 about WaldenwThe book details Thoreaus sojourn in a cabin near Walden Pond,amidst woodland owned by his friend and mentor Ralph Waldo Emerson,near Concord,Massachusetts.wThoreau did not intend to live as a hermit,for he received visitors and returned their visits.Instead,he hoped to isolate himself
29、 from society in order to gain a more objective understanding of it.wSimple living and self-sufficiency were Thoreaus other goals,and the whole project was inspired by transcendentalist philosophy,which was one of the key ideas of the American Romantic Period.As Thoreau made clear in his book,his ca
30、bin was not in wilderness but at the edge of town,not far from his family home.Synopsis(contents)wEconomy This is the first chapter and also the longest by far.Thoreau begins by outlining his project:a two-year and two-month stay at a crude cabin in the woods near Walden Pond.He does this,he says,in
31、 order to illustrate the spiritual benefits of a simplified lifestyle.He easily supplies the four necessities of life(food,shelter,clothing,and fuel).He meticulously records his expenditures and earnings,demonstrating his understanding of economy,as he builds his house and buys and grows food.For a
32、home and freedom,he spends a mere$28.13.wComplementary Verses This chapter consists entirely of a poem,The Pretensions of Poverty,by seventeenth-century English poet Thomas Carew.The poem criticizes those who think that their poverty gives them unearned moral and intellectual superiority.Synopsis(co
33、ntents)wWhere I Lived,and What I Lived For After playing with the idea of buying a farm,Thoreau describes his cabins location.Then he explains that he took up his abode at Walden Woods so as to live deliberately,to front only the essential facts of life,and see if I could not learn what it had to te
34、ach,and not,when I came to die,discover that I had not lived.wReading Thoreau provides discourse on the benefits of reading classical literature(preferably in the original Greek or Latin)and bemoans the lack of sophistication in Concord,manifested in the popularity of popular literature.He yearns fo
35、r a utopian time when each New England village will support wise men to educate and thereby ennoble the population.Synopsis(contents)wSounds Thoreau opens this chapter by warning against relying too much on literature as a means of transcendence.Instead,one should experience life for oneself.Thus,af
36、ter describing his cabins beautiful natural surroundings and his casual housekeeping habits,Thoreau goes on to criticize the train whistle that interrupts his reverie.To him,the railroad symbolizes the destruction of the good old pastoral way of life.Following is a description of the sounds audible
37、from his cabin:the church bells ringing,carriages rattling and rumbling,cows lowing,whip-poor-wills singing,owls hooting,frogs croaking,and cockerels crowing.wSolitudeThoreau rhapsodizes about the beneficial effects of living solitary and close to nature.He loves to be alone,for I never found the co
38、mpanion that was so companionable as solitude,and he is never lonely as long as he is close to nature.He believes there is no great value to be had by rubbing shoulders with the mass of humanity.Synopsis(contents)wVisitorsThoreau writes about the visitors to his cabin.Among the 25 or 30 visitors is
39、a young French-Canadian woodchopper,Alec Therien,whom Thoreau idealizes as approaching the ideal man,and a runaway slave,whom Thoreau helps on his journey to freedom in Canada.wThe Bean-Field Thoreau relates his efforts to cultivate two and a half acres of beans.He plants in June and spends his summ
40、er mornings weeding the field with a hoe.He sells most of the crop,and his small profit of$8.71 covers his needs.wThe VillageThoreau visits the small town of Concord every day or two to hear the In late summer,he is arrested for refusing to pay federal taxes,but is released the next day.He explains
41、that he refuses to pay taxes to a government that supports slavery.Synopsis(contents)wBaker FarmWhile on an afternoon ramble in the woods,Thoreau gets caught in a rainstorm and takes shelter in the dirty,dismal hut of John Field,a penniless but hard-working Irish farmhand,and his wife and children.T
42、horeau urges Field to live a simple but independent and fulfilling life in the woods,thereby freeing himself of employers and creditors.But the Irishman wont give up his dreams of luxury,which is the American dream.wHigher LawsThoreau discusses whether hunting wild animals and eating meat is good.He
43、 concludes that the primitive,animal side of humans drives them to kill and eat animals,and that a person who transcends this propensity is superior to those who dont.(Thoreau eats fish.)In addition to vegetarianism,he lauds chastity,work,and teetotalism.Synopsis(contents)wBrute NeighborsThoreau bri
44、efly discusses the many wild animals that are his neighbors at Walden.A description of the nesting habits of partridges is followed by a fascinating account of a massive battle between red and black ants.Three of the combatants he takes into his cabin and examines them under a microscope as the blac
45、k ant kills the two smaller red ones.Later,Thoreau takes his boat and tries to follow a teasing loon about the pond.wHouse-WarmingAfter picking November berries in the woods,Thoreau bestirs himself to add a chimney and plaster the walls of his hut in order to stave off the cold of the oncoming winte
46、r.He also lays in a good supply of firewood,and expresses affection for wood and fire.Synopsis(contents)wFormer Inhabitants;and Winter VisitorsThoreau relates the stories of people who formerly lived in the vicinity of Walden Pond.Then he talks about the few visitors he receives during the winter:a
47、farmer,a woodchopper,and a poet(Ellery Channing).wWinter AnimalsThoreau amuses himself by watching wildlife during the winter.He relates his observations of owls,hares,red squirrels,mice,and various birds as they hunt,sing,and eat the scraps and corn he put out for them.He also describes a fox hunt
48、that passes by.Synopsis(contents)wSpringAs spring arrives,Walden and the other ponds melt with stentorian thundering and rumbling.Thoreau enjoys watching the thaw,and grows ecstatic as he witnesses the green rebirth of nature.He watches the geese winging their way north,and a hawk playing by itself
49、in the sky.As nature is reborn,the narrator implies,so is he.He departs Walden on September 8,1847.wConclusionThis final chapter is more passionate and urgent than its predecessors.In it,he criticizes conformity:If a man does not keep pace with his companions,perhaps it is because he hears a differe
50、nt drummer.Let him step to the music which he hears,however measured or far away.By doing these things,men may find happiness and self-fulfillment.Themes Walden emphasizes the importance of self-reliance,solitude,contemplation,and closeness to nature in transcending the desperate existence that,he a
