1、学术英语读写全册配套精品学术英语读写全册配套精品 完整课件完整课件 Research paper If we knew what we were doing, it would not be called research. Albert Einstein, 18791955 How to Read a Paper THE THREE-PASS APPROACH The fi rst pass quick scan: birds-eyeview 1.Carefully read the title, abstract, and introduction 2.Read the section a
2、nd sub-section headings, but ignore everything else 3.Read the conclusions 4.Glance over the references, mentally ticking off the ones youve already read. 1. Category 2. Context 3. Correctness 4. Contributions 5.Clarity The second pass Key points, make comments The third pass Reflection and criticis
3、m Virtually re-implement the paper. Making the same assumptions as the authors, re-create the work. Reconstruct the entire structure of the paper from memory Be able to Identify its strong and weak points. Be able to pinpoint implicit assumptions, missing citations to relevant work, and potential is
4、sues with experimental or analytical techniques Introduction What is the overall purpose of the research? How does the research fit into the context of its field? Is it, for example, attempting to settle a controversy? show the validity of a new technique? open up a new field of inquiry? Do you agre
5、e with the authors rationale for studying the question in this way? Methods Were the measurements appropriate for the questions the researcher was approaching? Often, researchers need to use indicators because they cannot measure something directly-for example, using babies birthweight to indicate n
6、utritional status. Were the measures in this research clearly related to the variables in which the researchers (or you) were interested? If human subjects were studied, do they fairly represent the populations under study? Results What is the one major finding? Were enough of the data presented so
7、that you feel you can judge for yourself how the experiment turned out? Did you see patterns or trends in the data that the author did not mention? Were there problems that were not addressed? Discussion Do you agree with the conclusions drawn from the data? Are these conclusions over-generalized or
8、 appropriately careful? Are there other factors that could have influenced, or accounted for, the results? What further experiments would you think of, to continue the research or to answer remaining questions? FINDING DATA FOR YOUR MODEL International journals: You can find excellent, up-to-date te
9、achers who can be found nowhere else. Characteristics of the Articles You Want to Find Each must be published in well-known international journals. Each must have been published within the last 35 years. Remember scientific language is in a rapid change process. Each must have at least one author wh
10、o is a native speaker of English. Science calls for a sudden narrative. Successful articles are dramatic stories told in as few words as possible. Above all, in the voice of science, clarity is crucial. design spreadsheets Spreadsheet #1Length and variety of sentence structure, including frequency o
11、f prepositional phrases. Spreadsheet #2Use of transitions, direct and implied. Spreadsheet #3Appropriate choice of verbs. Spreadsheet #4Verb tenses. Spreadsheet #5How articles begin and end. Spreadsheet #6How and when to give credit to other researchers. TRANSITIONS Smoothers Contradictors Explainer
12、s Smoothers furthermore in addition first, second, third, etc. (archaic: firstly, secondly, thirdly etc.) finally lastly moreover incidentally in fact in truth as a matter of fact for example such as next then Contradictors but however instead nevertheless despite surprisingly in spite of in contras
13、t for comparison Explainers because as a result therefore in general consequently as predicted in conclusion since as for finally Plagiarism is using others ideas and words without clearly acknowledging the source of that information. To avoid plagiarism, you must give credit whenever you use anothe
14、r persons idea, opinion, or theory; any facts, statistics, graphs, drawingsany pieces of informationthat are not common knowledge; quotations of another persons actual spoken or written words; or paraphrase of another persons spoken or written words. Focus group study A focus group is a group of peo
15、ple who have been gathered together to give their opinions about an issue .A focus group study uses small discussion groups to determine public attitudes on a wide array of issues. While engaged in lively discussion, members reveal feelings, through verbal and non-verbal communication, that a simple
16、 questionnaire may be unable to capture. Focus groups are a great way to get input, feedback and dialogue with the participants of the study. Advantages: It is quick, cheap and relatively easy to assemble. Good for getting rich data in participants own words and developing deeper in sight. People ar
17、e able to build on others responses and come up with ideas they might not have thought of in a one on one interview. They are very cost effective in terms of gathering primary data and are very much time efficient. Limitations: Pretense, political correctness, and outright lying by group members can
18、 undermine the value of focus groups. Also, some participants may have difficulty articulating their true feelings. Pilot Study A pilot, or feasibility study, is a small experiment designed to test logistics and gather information prior to a larger study, in order to improve the latters quality and
19、efficiency. A pilot study can reveal deficiencies in the design of a proposed experiment or procedure and these can then be addressed before time and resources are expended on large scale studies. A pilot study is normally small in comparison with the main experiment and therefore can provide only l
20、imited information on the sources and magnitude of variation of response measures. The pilot study may, however, provide vital information on the severity of proposed procedures or treatments. A pilot study may address a number of logistical issues to the main study: * Check that the instructions gi
21、ven to investigators are comprehensible; * Check that investigators and technicians are sufficiently skilled in the procedures; * Check the correct operation of equipment; * Check the reliability and validity of results * Detect a floor or ceiling effect * Assess whether the level of intervention is
22、 appropriate Literature review A literature review discusses published information in a particular subject area, and sometimes information in a particular subject area within a certain time period. The focus of a literature review is to summarize and synthesize the arguments and ideas of others with
23、out adding new contributions. In a research paper, you use the literature as a foundation and as support for a new insight that you contribute. Qualitative Data Analysis Qualitative methods are ways of collecting data which are concerned with describing meaning, rather than with drawing statistical
24、inferences. Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) is the range of processes and procedures whereby we move from the qualitative data that have been collected into some form of explanation, understanding or interpretation of the people and situations we are investigating. The idea is to examine the meaning
25、ful and symbolic content of qualitative data. For example, by analysing interview data the researcher may be attempting to identify any or all of: Someones interpretation of the world, Why they have that point of view, How they came to that view, What they have been doing, How they conveyed their vi
26、ew of their situation, How they identify or classify themselves and others in what they say Quantitative methods Quantitative methods are those which focus on numbers and frequencies rather than on meaning and experience. Quantitative methods (e.g. experiments, questionnaires and psychometric tests)
27、 provide information which is easy to analyse statistically and fairly reliable. Quantitative methods are associated with the scientific and experimental approach and are criticised for not providing an in depth description. Reading writers use citations to give their statement greater authority. Gi
28、lbert (1977) 5. Citations are used to supply evidence that the author qualifies as a member of a chosen scholarly community; citations are used to demonstrate familiarity with the field. Bavelvs (1978) 6. Citations are used to create a research space for the citing author. By describing what has bee
29、n done, citations point to the way to what has not been done and so prepare a space for new research. Swales (1990) coherence Literature review Established major theories Theory 1 Theory 2 Theories associated with individual authors RhetoricalTheories 4 and 6 EconomicTheory 3 SociologicalTheory 5 Pa
30、ge 75 coherence Page 76 Literature review tense coherenceproblems variation Literature review Page 77 Jones (1987) the cause of illiteracy. The causes of illiteracy by Jones (1987). Past references to single studies tense Page 78 The causes of illiteracy (Jones 1987). There several investigations in
31、to the cause of illiteracy (Jones 1987, Hyon 1994) Several researchers the cause of illiteracy (Jones 1987, Hyon 1994). Present perfect reference to areas of inquiry tense Page 79 The causes of illiteracy complex (Jones 1987, Hyon 1994) Illiteracy to have a common set of causes (Jones 1987, Hyon 199
32、4). Present reference to state of current knowledge tense Page 80 Past tense what a previous researcher did tense Page 81 Jones (1987) that Jones (1987) has that Jones (1987) that What a previous researcher wrote or thought tense Page 82 Literature review tense coherenceproblems variation Literature
33、 review Two basic methods of acknowledging source materials 1. Reporting using paraphrase Reporting verbs X observes that X states that X assumes that X believes that X concludes that. X implies that X maintains that X remarks that X claims that As X points out, X has expressed a similar view . A st
34、udy by X indicates that X has drawn attention to the fact that X found/discovered that Research by X suggests that X argues that As noted by X According to X It has been argued by X that In Xs view Ways of Presenting Ideas and Arguments Types of writingWays you might present this in your essay 1When
35、 the writer is very committed, even passionate, about the ideas he/she writes X asserts that X strongly argues that X firmly believes that X is committed to the idea that 2When the writer presents detailed evidence in support of his/her ideas The work of X shows that X concludes that X found that X
36、discovered that X learned that 3When the writer is quite cautious and restrained about the ideas he/she puts forward Research by X indicates that X suggests that Ways of Presenting Ideas and Arguments 4 When the writer puts forward ideas based on their personal experiences only The work of X indicat
37、es that X believes that X feels that 5 When the writer puts forward ideas you are rather suspicious or skeptical about X claims that X believes that According to X 6When the writer appears to report something in a straight-forward way, backed up with apparently good reasons for the ideas presented X
38、 states that X reports that X notes that X found that X observes that X concludes that As X points out, X has drawn attention to the fact that X argues that 2. Direction quotation paraphrasing 1. By changing the vocabulary She examined the difficulties = She investigated the problems that 2. By chan
39、ging the verb form Brown analyzed the students difficulties. = The students difficulties were analyzed by Brown. 3. By changing the word class The reports were completed in April = The completion of the repots ensured that. 4. By synthesis Johns touched on the problems created by the lectures use of
40、 colloquial words and phrasesThis use of informal language was also noted by Jackson who investigated geology lectures given in English. Combine the techniques 1. The growth of the car industry parallels the development of the modern capitalism. The rise of the automobile industry matches the progre
41、ss of the contemporary capitalism. 2. It began in France, but took off in the USA. It started in France, but accelerated in the USA. 3. In the 1920s Alfred Sloans management theories helped GM to become the worlds dominant car company. In the 1920s, with help from the managerial theories of Alfred S
42、loan, GM dominated the worlds car company. 4. At this time, trade unions became increasingly militant defence of their members jobs. At this time increasingly militant trade unions defended their members jobs. 5. It has long been known that Cairo is the most populous city on earth, but no one knew e
43、xactly how populous it was until last month. Although Cairo has been the worlds most heavily populated city for many years, the precise population was not known until four weeks ago. 6. The amphibia, which is the animal class to which our frogs and toads belong, were the first animals to crawl from
44、the sea and inhabit the earth. The first animals to leave the sea and live on dry land were the amphibia. Page 97 According to Jones (1987), the causes of illiteracy are closely related to poverty. Jones research shows that illiteracy and poverty are inter-related (Jones 1987). variation 6 patterns
45、for referring to others: 1 Petress (2003)reportedthat statesthat foundthat stressedthat indicatedthat concluded that examined studied identified investigated argued for Literature fromsuggeststhat(Mccake ,1993) Researchindicatesthat Studies onrevealedthat A study offoundthat Researchesobservedthat J
46、ones researchshows that 6 patterns for referring to others: 2 In a studyconductedby Burke (1997), reported Drawing from Breens (2005) study, . 6 patterns for referring to others: 3 It has been suggested that (Carroll,2005) Page 101 6 patterns for referring to others: 4 As Carroll (2005) suggests, As
47、 suggested by Hayes (2008), 6 patterns for referring to others: 5 A technique used was the use of credibility checks (Carroll 2001). In general, Asians tend to value(Hui 1986) Using purposeful sampling (Conyne 1917) , 6 patterns for referring to others: 6 Page 104 Literature review tense coherence p
48、roblems variation Literature review Page 105 Lacking organization and structure Lacking focus, unity and coherence Being repetitive and verbose Failing to cite influential papers Failing to keep up with recent developments Failing to critically evaluate cited papers Citing irrelevant or trivial refe
49、rences Depending too much on secondary sources problems issues of the studies idea suggestion studies interviews a more holistic perspective the collected data the results explore/ investigate reveal/ discuss explore Present conduct set provide analyze/ categorize group/gather insights categories da
50、ta analyses The resultsthe notion the observation of the previous research conclusion Figure 1 that Model 1 offer/ gain emerge show / illustrate support corroborate agree with Illustrate Indicates/suggests offer Keys to task 2 Delicious food is the way to win a mans heart. You save money by not spen
