1、第五章第五章 框架及构式框架及构式Chapter 5 Frame and ConstructionsContents5.1 Frame and Scripts 框架与脚本5.2 Event-frame and the windowing of attention 事件框架和开启注意力视窗5.3 Language-specific framing and its use in narrative texts 特定语言框架及其在叙述文本中的使用5.4 Construction Grammar 构式语法5.1 Frame and Scripts The notion of frame was int
2、roduced into linguistics by Charles Fillmore in the middle of the 1970s based on his by now classic example, the commercial event frame.框架这一概念由 Charles Fillmore于20世纪70年代中期引入的语言学，它的基础是“商商务事件务事件”框架。框架。An example of BUYAn example of BUYADThe Frame of BUYThe Frame of BUY Mary bought some books from John
3、 for 500 dollors . some booksB (goods) A (buyer) Mary C (money) 500 dollorsD (seller) JohnFrame and perspectiveThe assignment of syntactic roles is governed by the choice of the verb buy, which is the syntactic perspective.The notion of perspective relies on the principle of prominence, that is on f
4、igure/ground segregation.The BUY frame is not just a useful tool for the syntactic description of the verb buy, but it can also be applied to the verbs sell, charge and pay. The difference of the four verbs is simply a change of perspective within the same frame. (1) David bought an old shirt from J
5、ohn for ten pounds.(2) John sold an old shirt toDavid for ten pounds. (3) John charged David ten pounds for an old shirt. (4) David paid ten pounds to John for an old shirt.The two verbs buy and pay describe the comercial event from the BUYERs perspective, while sell and charge perspectivize the sit
6、uation from the SELLERs point of view.Frame and perspectiveFrame and perspectiveThis is a first sign that the frame approach goes beyond the figure and ground approach in that it pays more attention to the less prominent parts of sentences like adverbials.The frame notion:different conceptions and r
7、elated concepts the notion of frame any system of linguistic choicescollections of wordschoices of grammatical rules or linguistic categriesStarting out from this linguistic position, the conception of the frame notion has shifted towards a cognitive interpretation.The frame notion:different concept
8、ions and related conceptsEvery sentence evokes a certain cognitive perspective on a situation by the choice of the verb and the particular syntactic pattern that it governs.The basis for perspective is mainly provided by the cognitive ability of directing ones attention.The similarities between two
9、approaches :the figure and ground approach & the frame and attention approachThe frame notion:different The frame notion:different conceptions and related concepts conceptions and related conceptsthe profiling of participants in an interactive network as syntactic figure and groundthe notion of pers
10、pectivizing two elements of a frame as subject and objectThey rely on Fillmores early Case Grammer,and share the belief that clause patterns cannot be seen in isolation but against their cognitive backgroundThe frame notion:different conceptions and related conceptsThe differences between the two ap
11、proaches:(1)Researches working in the frame paradigm are interested in problems related to the meaning of the verbs that belong to a frame.(2)The frame approach presents a unified view of syntactic patterns,(3) the figure and ground approach mainly emphasizes the two prominent entities on the level
12、of clause in the syntactic figure and the syntactic ground; however, the frame has something to say about linguistic items that attract only a small portion of our attention potential.Examples: 5.David spent ten pounds on an old shirt. 6.The old shirt cost David ten pounds.The frame notion:different
13、 conceptions and related conceptsFrames can be conceived as a way of describing the cognitive context which provides the background for and is associated with cognitive categories.The frame notion:different conceptions and related conceptsFrames are just one of variety of cognitive models which also
14、 include the scenarios, domains and interactive networks and the scrips .From frames to scripts:flying on a planeThe relevence of frames extends over the boundaries of single sentences to much larger linguistic and congnitive units.The following little story:Sue caught a plane from London to Madrid.
15、 After she had found her seat she checked whether the life vest was beneath it, but she could not find it. So she asked the flight attendant to find one for her.Attention: the two occurrences of the definite article the. From frames to scripts:flying on a planeQuestion: Why so the two uses of the de
16、finite article sound completely nautral, although they cannot be explained with the rules of grammar alone?Explaination:We need to make inferences that are based on our world knowledge to understand the definite references.Cognitive categories act both as anchors and as triggers for frames.Frame is
17、in the format of categories and their interrelations that frames are designed and it is by the same categories that they are activated.Categories is to provide “default assignments” by supplying context-dependent prototypes.From frames to scripts:flying on a planeFrom frames to scripts:flying on a p
18、laneAll these expectations that are based on our experience and stored in our long-term memory are part of the frame-system and influence our ability to produce and understand the language related to it.所有这些基于我们的经验并储存在长期记忆中的预期都是框架系统的组成部分，并且影响我们产生和理解与之有关的语言的能力。From frames to scripts:flying on a plane
19、From frames to scripts:flying on a planeFrom frames to scripts:flying on a planeFrom frames to scripts:flying on a planeTheFLYING ON A PLANE frame has so far been presented as if it were a motley collection of categories. A flight exhibits a very predictable temporal structure in which one stage is
20、often a prerequisite for the next stage.Viewing the flight from such a sequential perspective, we go beyond simple frames and move into the scripts, i.e. knowledge structures that are particularly designed for frequently recurring event sequences.From frames to scripts:flying on a planeFrom frames t
21、o scripts:flying on a planeThe restaurant scriptThe restaurant scriptThe RESTAURANT script as developed by the computer scientist Roger Schank and the social psychologist Robert Abelson.It can be divided into 4 scenes: Entering, ordering, eating and exiting. In entering, a number of condition must b
22、e fufilled.props 道具道具roles 人物人物entry conditions进入条件进入条件桌子 tables菜单 menu食物 food(F)账单 bill 钱 money顾客 customer (S)服务生 waiter (W)厨师 cook (C)收银员 cashier(M)店主 owner (O)S 饿了 S is hungryS 有钱 S has moneyOrdering scene of the restaurant scriptsOrdering scene of the restaurant scriptsAlthough we are all famili
23、ar with the information stored in scripts, when we produce or listen to language we unconsciously fill in an incredible amount of information taken from frames and scripts.eg. John went into a restaurant. He asked the waitress for coq au vin. He paind the bill and left.Without supplying this informa
24、tion we would certainly not be able to understand even the most simple pieces of discourse.eg. John went into a restaurant. He saw a waitress. He got up and went home.5.2 Event -frames and the windowing of attention5.2 Event -frames and the windowing of attentionFrames can provide valuable tools for
25、 the linguistic and conceptual analysis of situations like buying and selling, or having a meal in a restaurant . The notion of frame can be extended to describe more general situations, such as event chains linked by temporal sequences or causation.The information provided by the frame is still fai
26、rly specific. For example: the everyday practices of paying by credit card.However, the frame would not be valid at all in culture where goods are traded for other goods rather than sold for money.Therefore, frames are cognitive structures that are context-and- culture- dependent.The question is the
27、 notion of frame:1) is restricted to certain contexts and culturesor 2) can be conceieved of as being a much more basic cognitive phenomenon that underlines a wide variety of real-world situations and is shared by all human beings.Such a universalist-cognitive line of research is pursued by Talmy in
28、 his investigation of event types.Motion event and motion event-framesTo understand Talmys motion event , lets first review the situations with moving objects mentioned in this book.Granted that figure/ ground segregation is a universally valid principle of perception, the three components, FIGURE,
29、GROUND and PATH are crucial for a cognitive description of a motion event.Step further, MOTION can be regarded as a fourth component of motion event. In addition to the conceptual component moving, fly, in the sentence A ballon flew over the house, also describes the way or MANNER of the movement ,
30、and this may be regarded as the fifth component to the structure of a motion event.For a motion event to take place, something must have caused the moving object to start moving or stay in motion.This CAUSE element can be an inportant factor in the conceptualization of motion event.Six cognitive com
31、ponents FIGURE, GROUND, PATH, MOTION, MANNER and CAUSE define the motion event-frame.FIGURE MOTION PATH GROUND主体主体 位移位移 路径路径 背景背景FIGURE MOTION PATH GROUND主体主体 位移位移 路径路径 背景背景GENUINE MOTION真正“位移” LOCATEDNESS静止状态The pencil rolled off the table.铅笔 从桌子上滚落下来。The pencil lay on the table。铅笔放在桌子上。The pencil
32、blew off the table.铅笔从桌子上被吹落了下来。The pencil dtuck on the table (after I glued it) .铅笔粘在了桌子上（在我粘上它之后）。MANNER方式CAUSE 原因Generalized from motion event, Talmy defines the notion of event-frame as the following:A set of conceptual elements and interrelationships that .are evoked together or co-evoke each o
33、ther can be said to liee within or constitute an event-frame, while the elements that are conceieved of as incidental-whether evoked weakly or not at all- lie outside the event-frame. (Talmy 2000/I:259)Talmy identifies five types of event-frames:motion event-frames 位移事件框架 causation event-frames 致使事件
34、框架cyclic event-frames 循环事件框架 participant-interaction event-frames 参与者互动事件框架interrelationship event-frames 相互关系事件框架Windowing of attention in motion event-framesWindowing of attention in motion event-framesA flight situation:On 26 July 1909 Louis Bleriot flew across the English Channel from Les Baraqu
35、es to Dover.1909年7月26日 Louis Bleriot从Les Baraques到Dover飞过英吉利海峡。 FIGURE 主体主体MOTION位移位移PATH 路径路径GROUND 背景背景Louis Bleriotflewacrossthe English ChannelTheir specific function becomes clearer when we consider all three spatial adverbials contained in this sentence. While the first (across the channel) is
36、 seen as evoking the whole PATH component of the motion event-frame, the second and third (from Les Baraques and to Dover) are regarded as explicit sepecifications of the PATH component drawing attention to its initial and final points.This cognitive process of forgrounding certain portions of an ev
37、ent-frame is called windowing of attenion by Talmy.The conceptual material that makes up part of an event-frame is background is labelled Gapping.Pathwindowing attentional windows can be pathgapping opened and closed Schematic representation of Schematic representation of positional types of windowi
38、ng positional types of windowing 视窗位置类型的图示展示视窗位置类型的图示展示 medial windowing PATH FIGURE in motion initial final initial final windowing windowing windowingwindowing GROUND GROUND Open path Open path 开放路径开放路径The crate that was in the aircrafts cargo bay fell-飞机货舱中的板条箱掉飞机货舱中的板条箱掉-1.Single windows: 单一视窗a:
39、 intial windowing - out of the airplaneb: medial windowing -through the airc: final windowing -into the ocean2.Combined windows： 组合视窗a+b: intial and medial windowing -out of the airplane through the aira+c: intial and final widowing -out of the airplane into the oceanb+c: medial and fianl windowing
40、-through the air into the oceana+b+c: maximal windowing over -out of the plane through the air the whole PATH into the oceanClosed path 封闭路径封闭路径I need the milk. 我想喝牛奶我想喝牛奶 。 -1.Single windows: 单一视窗a: intial windowing - *Go.b: medial windowing - Get it out of the refrigerator.c: final windowing - Bri
41、ng it here.2.Combined windows： 组合视窗a+b: intial and medial windowing - Go get it out of the refrigerator.a+c: intial and final widowing -Go bring it here.b+c: medial and fianl windowing - Get it out of the refrigerator and bring it here.a+b+c: maximal windowing over - Go get it out of the refrigerato
42、r and bring the whole PATH it here. Fictive path Fictive path 虚拟路径虚拟路径Where is your bike? 你的自行车在哪？你的自行车在哪？ -1.Single windows: 单一视窗a: intial windowing - It is across from the bakery.b: medial windowing - It is across the street.c: final windowing - *It is leaning against the lampost across.2.Combined
43、 windows： 组合视窗a+b: intial and medial windowing - It is across the street from the bakery.a+c: intial and final widowing -It is leaning against the lampost across from the bakery.b+c: medial and fianl windowing -It is leaning against the lampost across the street.a+b+c: maximal windowing over - It is
44、 leaning against the lampost across. the whole PATH the street from the bakery. Real path with maximal windowing: intial window medial window final windowGo from the bakery across the street to the lamppost bakery street lamppostFictive path with maximal windowing: It is leaning against the lamppost
45、 across the street from the bakeryCausal-chain windowing 致使链视窗致使链视窗Traditional notion of causation: A simple yes-no categoryeg. non causative (die,fall ) causative (kill drop)However:Talmy argued in 1976 that different degrees of caussation exist: event-causation事件致使：The vase broke.author-causation人
46、为致使: He broke the vase by mistake.agent-causation施事致使: He broke the vase to irritate his wife.Talmy claimed that many events involving causation should be treated as a complex sequences of more elementary stages and subevents.eg.John broke the window (with a stone).1. The agent decides that hes goin
47、g to break the window.2. He bends hid knees, moves his hand to ground to grasp a stonr, straightens up and lifts the stone with his hand, swing his arm while holding the stone in his hand, and releases the stone from his hand thus propelling it forward.3.The stone sails through the air.4.The stone f
48、orcefully makes contact with window.5.The window breaks.Each subevent is linked to the next by a causal relation, and this motivates Talmys term causal-chain event. It is possible to deduce from this example the components of causal-chain event-frame.Stages of causal event-frame Eg.John broke the wi
49、ndow with a stone.1.Agent intends to act1.The agent makes his mind that he is going to break the windows.2.Agent sets parts of his body or his whole body in motion and thereby intiates the causative event.2.He bends hid knees, moves his hand to ground to grasp a stonr, straightens up and lifts the s
50、tone with his hand, swing his arm while holding the stone in his hand, and releases the stone from his hand thus propelling it forward.3.Intermediate subevents which are causally related to each other (optional)3.The stone sails through the air.4. Penultimate sunevent= immediate cause of final resul
