1、 Figures of speech are forms of expression that depart from normal word or sentence order or from the common literal meanings of words, for the purpose of achieving a special effect. In everyday speech and writing and in literature the chief functions of figures of speech are probably to embellish,
2、to emphasize or to clarify. They are used to give tone or atmosphere to discourse, to provide vivid examples to stimulate thought by startling the reader or listener, to give life to inanimate objects, to amuse, or to ornament. Figures of speech exist in almost endless variety and many are closely r
3、elated or intricately overlap, hence no completely satisfactory system of classification has ever been devised. The following are some commonly used ones: simile metaphor personification metonymy SynecdocheAntonomasiaeuphemismHyperbolelitotes AntithesisParadox12. Oxymoron13. EpigramApostrophe rhetor
4、ical question 16. Irony17. Sarcasm18. Satire19. Ridicule20. Innuendo21. Parody 22. Climax23. Anti-climax24. Alliteration 25. Assonance26. Onomatopoeia 27. Transferred epithet28. Pun29. Parallelism 30. Repetition 1. Simile (明喻明喻) A figure that involves an expressed comparison, almost always introduce
5、d by the word “like” or “as”. The two things compared must be dissimilar and the basis of resemblance is usually an abstract quality. 用用like, as 或其他词指出两个截然不同的事物之或其他词指出两个截然不同的事物之间相似之处的办法，叫明喻。间相似之处的办法，叫明喻。( 本体本体: tenor; 喻体喻体: vehicle) 1) As cold waters to a thirsty soul, so is good news from a far cou
6、ntry. 2) The water lay gray and wrinkled like an elephants skin. 3) He bellowed like a bull seeking combat. 4) That man cant be trusted. Hes as slippery as an eel. More examples:A word and a stone let go cannot be recalled.Love and cough cannot be hid (hidden).He had no more idea of money than a cow
7、.The pen is to a writer what the gun is to a fighter. (A is to B what C is to D.)What sculpture is to a block of marble, education is to the soul. ( What C is to D, A is to B.) 2. Metaphor(暗喻暗喻) The substitution of one thing for another, or the identification of two things from different ranges of t
8、hought. It is often loosely defined as “an implied comparison,” “a simile without like or as”. Metaphor is considered by many the most important and basic poetic figure and also the commonest and the most beautiful. 1) Irrigation is the lifeblood of agriculture. 2) All his former joy was drowned in
9、the embarrassment and confusion he was feeling at the moment. 3) Snow clothes the ground. A metaphor, to be effective, has to have three properties, viz., a) freshness and originality, b) aptness and c) consistency. A metaphor is apt and appropriate if the comparison implied heightens effect or enha
10、nces the subject. e.g. Her beautiful long hair was pitch-black. () Her beautiful long hair was jet-black. ( ) The night was pitch-black. ( ) Consistency in metaphors becomes relevant and important when we are using two or more metaphors to illustrate the same subject. The metaphors are consistent if
11、 they produce images related to and supporting each other and are not mixed or discordant. e.g. The seeds of rebellion were kindled in secret. () (Here the metaphors are not consistent. One metaphor compares the initial stirrings of rebellion to seeds; the other likens the birth and growth of these
12、feelings to the kindling of flames. Now seeds cannot be kindled. The metaphors are mixed.) The flames of rebellion were kindled in secret. () Mixed metaphors can produce very amusing and illogical imagery, and are to be strictly avoided. More examples: I skim over the book to taste the tone of it. (
13、) (Tone cannot be tasted.) At last he felt a ray of hope. () (We normally see rays.) Below is an example of how three sets of metaphors are blended Skillfully together to illustrate the difficulty of editing academic writing: And so, anticipating no literary treat, I plunged into the forest of words
14、 of my first manuscript. My weapons were a sturdy eraser and several batteries of sharpened pencils. My armor was a thesaurus. And if I should become lost, a near-by public library was a landmark, and the Encyclopedia of Social Science on its reference shelves was an ever-ready guide. Instead of big
15、 trees, I found underbrush. Cutting through involved, lumbering sentences was bad enough, but the real chore was removal of the burdocks (牛蒡牛蒡) of excess verbiage which clung to the manuscript. (S.T. Williamson: “How to Write Like a Social Scientist”)(1st set: plunge-get lost-landmark- guide2nd set:
16、 forest- trees- underbrush- lumber-burdocks3rd set: weapons- batteries- armor- cutting through- removal )3. Personification (拟人拟人) A figure of speech that gives human form or feelings to animals, or life and personal attributes to inanimate objects, or to ideas and abstractions. There are three chie
17、f kinds of personifications: 1) That produced by the use of adjectives. the blushing rose; the thirsty ground 2) That produced by the use of verbs. the kettle sings; the waves danced 3) That produced by the use of nouns. the smiles of spring; the whisper of leavesMore examples: a) Youth is hot and b
18、old, Age is weak and cold, Youth is wild, and Age is tame. William Shakespeare b) The match will soon be over and defeat is staring us in the face. c) This time fate was smiling to him. d) Dusk came stealthily. e) The storm was raging and an angry sea was continuously tossing their boat. f) The wind
19、 whistled through the trees.4. Metonymy (换喻，转喻换喻，转喻) The substitution of the name of one thing for that of another with which it is closely associated. For example: 1) The pen is mightier than the sword. 2) She sets a good table. (= She provides good food.) 3) He is too fond of the bottle. 4) Gray h
20、airs should be respected. 5) I have never read Li Bai. Metonymy can be derived from various sources from names of persons, form animals, professions, locations or place names, etc., as illustrated below:A. Names of persons a) John Bull: England, or the English people b) Uncle Sam: The United States
21、of AmericaB. Animals the bear: the former Soviet Union or the Soviet government C. Parts of the body a) heart: feelings or emotions b) head, brain: wisdom, intelligence, reason e.g. Her heart ruled her head. Use your brains. c) gray hair: old age D. Professions a) the bar: the legal profession b) th
22、e press: newspapers; newspaper reportersE. Locations of government, of business or industrial enterprises a) Downing Street: the British government or cabinet b) The White House: the President or Executive branch of the U.S. government c) the Pentagon: the U.S. military establishment d) Wall Street:
23、 U.S. financial circles e) Hollywood: American film-making industry f) Foggy Bottom: U.S. State Department5. Synecdoche ( (提喻提喻) ) A. the naming of a part to mean the whole. For xample, 1. We are short of hands. (“Hands” for men who do manual labor.) 2. a fleet of 50 sails (for “a fleet of 50 ships”
24、) B. the naming of the material for the thing made. e.g. Have you any coppers? (= any money?) C. the naming of the genus for the species. e.g. He is a poor creature. (= a poor man.) D. the naming of an individual for a class. e.g. He is the Newton of this century. Antonomasia (换称): The term for some
25、 common figurative uses of namesthe use of an epithet or title in place of a name his majesty for a king or the name of the king; his honor for a judge or the name of the judge; the Boss for the name of the employerThe use of a proper name instead of a common noun a Judas for a traitor He is our Gor
26、ky. Gorky for a famous writerCf. synecdoche. There is a certain degree of overlapping here. 7. Euphemism (委婉语委婉语) The substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant. e.g. “true words” the “gilded words” A. Death, Illness, Old Age, etc.
27、to die to pass away; ones heart has stopped beating old people senior citizens old age getting on; past ones prime; feeling ones age; second childhood mad emotionally disturbed; soft in the head; simple-minded fat people weight- watchers (The motive for the euphemisms in this case seems to be to avo
28、id hurting peoples feelings.) B. Toilet Habits, etc. go to the toilet visit the necessary; answer natures call; do ones business; go to the bathroom (The motive here, obviously, is to avoid using the true words which are considered crude and indecent in polite conversation.) C. Poverty and Unemploym
29、ent dismiss lay off penniless hard up; in reduced circumstances in debt in difficulties the poor *the have-nots; the underpriviledged/ disadvantaged slums *sub-standard housing (the euphemisms used by the poor themselves are to “soften” harsh reality, but the terms marked * often used by government
30、personnel seem more to cover up governmental inability to solve social and economic problems “cosmetic” words, so to say.)D. Menial jobs or professions of low social standing hairdresser beautician; hair-stylist; hair-designer undertaker mortician manicurist a nail technician mechanic automobile eng
31、ineer bootblack footwear maintenance engineer garbage man sanitation engineer (The motive here is plainly to “uplift” these professions by name, if not by status. It reflects a sense of inferiority as well as a striving for “better things”.) E. Political and Military activities invasion military act
32、ion aggression police action refugee displaced person D.P. retreat adjustment of the front; redeployment concentration camps strategic hamlets driving inhabitants away pacification shelling or bombing of ones own troops ( or allied troops) accidental delivery or death or casualties caused by “friend
33、ly fire” (The euphemisms here are used to cover up the true nature of events, deceiving the public with nice-sounding and pseudo-technical words.)8. Hyperbole(夸张) A conscious exaggeration for the sake of emphasis, not intended to be understood literally. 1) The wave ran mountain high. 2) His speech
34、brought the house down. 3) All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand. 9. Litotes ( 曲言；含蓄渲染) A form of understatement (轻描淡写，降调陈述) which gains its particular effect by phrasing in the negative what it wishes to say positively. 1) This is no small accomplishment. 2) The German fleet
35、was not an unworthy opponent. 3) This is not at all unpleasant.10. Antithesis (对照、对仗对照、对仗) The setting of contrasting phrases opposite each other for emphasis. In true antithesis the opposition between the elements is manifested through parallel grammatical structure. 1) The quest for righteousness
36、is Oriental, the quest for knowledge, Occidental. (Sir William Osler) 2) Good breeding consists in concealing how much we think of ourselves and how little we think of the other person. (Mark Twain) 3) A friend exaggerates a mans virtues, an enemy his crimes. 4) If a free society cannot help the man
37、y who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich. 5) Let both sides explore what problems unite us instead of belaboring those problems which divide us. 6) And so, my fellow Americans ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country. 7) United, there is little we can
38、not do in a host of co-operative ventures. Divided, there is little we can do, for we dare not meet a powerful challenge at odds and split asunder. 8) a world which will lament them a day and forget them forever 9) From them all Mark Twain gained a keen perception of the human race, of the differenc
39、e between what people claim to be and what they really are.11. Paradox (反论；似非而是的隽语) a statement that appears to be logically contradictory and yet may be true, the purpose of which is to provoke fresh thought. 1) One mans terrorist is another mans freedom fighter. 2) My life closed twice before its
40、close. (Emily Dickinson) (meaning two truly eventful things occurred in her life before that life ceased) 3) In fact, it appears that the teachers of English teach English so poorly largely because they teach grammar so well. 4) The child is father of the man. (Wordsworth)12. Oxymoron (矛盾修饰法) A comp
41、ressed paradox, formed by the conjoining of two contrasting, contradictory or incongruous terms. 1) bitter-sweet memories 2) orderly chaos 3) the wisest fool in Christendom 4) living deaths 5) freezing fires 6) glorious defeat 7) poor rich guys 8) tearful joy An understanding of oxymoron can help us
42、 to appreciate more fully the implied complexity of descriptions and feelings. Like paradox, an Oxymoron initially surprises one with its incongruity of terms, which really hides a certain truth, or a significent point. As in paradox, the appreciation of an oxymoron comes from trying to find the hid
43、den truth, the subtle significance in otherwise conflicting images or ideas.13. Epigram(警句) A short, pithy statement in verse or prose, usually with a touch of wit, often antithetical. 1) Necessity is the mother of invention. 2) Experience is the name everyone gives to his mistakes. 3) Conscience is
44、 the inner voice that warns us that someone may be looking. (H. L. Mencken)4) The child is father of the man. (Wordsworth) (the intended meaning is that the actions of a boy indicate what kind of a man he is likely to become)Note: There may be some overlapping of an epigram and a paradox.14. Apostro
45、phe (顿呼) The turning away from the subject and the addressing of an absent person or a personified object or abstraction. The shift is both emotional and dignified, therefore most appropriate in serious and stately contexts.“You Heavens, give me that patience, patience I need!” (Shakespeare, King Le
46、ar)1)2) “Envy, be silent and attend!” (Pope)15. Rhetorical question (修辞疑问句；反问句修辞疑问句；反问句) A question neither requiring nor intended to produce a reply but asked for emphasis. The assumption is that only one answer is possible. 1) Was I not at the scene of the crime? (Lesson 2, Book 1) 2) O Wind If Wi
47、nter comes, can Spring be far behind? (Shelley: Ode to the West Wind) 3) but can you doubt what our policy will be? (Lesson 5, Book 1) 4) But, without even considering that threat, shouldnt it startle us that we have put these clouds in the evening sky which glisten with a spectral light? (Lesson 3,
48、 Book 1)16. Irony (反语反语) A figure of speech that achieves emphasis by saying the opposite of what is meant, the intended meaning of the words being the opposite of their usual sense. For example: 1) Oh, how I love queuing up! (In fact, the speak hates it.) 2) This diligent student seldom reads more
49、than an hour per month. 3) “Generally speaking,” said Miss Murdstone, “I dont like boys. How dye do, boy?” Under these encouraging circumstances, I replied that I was very well, and that I hoped she was the same, with such indifferent grace that Miss Murdstone disposed of me in two words, “Wants man
50、ner!” (C. Dickens: David Copperfield) (Here the word encouraging is used ironically, for the circumstances were not encouraging at all they were, in fact, discouraging, for Miss Murdstone had said she didnt like boys.)4) We are lucky. Its the other side on the thirteenth of December. That makes us f
