1、PROGRAM OF ENTRANCE EXAMS IN “GENERAL AND PHYSICOCHEMICAL BIOLOGY” FOR MASTERS DEGREE IN NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY Mycology, algology and higher plants Algae: general description. Cell and thallus structure. Major types of thallus organization in algae. Algal pigments, their role in systematics and adaptati
2、on to environment. Reproduction and lifecycles of algae. Brief description of major divisions of algae. Distribution of algae and their role in environment. Structure of algae from different ecological groups. Role of algae in nature and their practical application. Fungi and fungaceous organisms. G
3、eneral description. Fungi and fungaceous organisms: similarity and major differences. Mycelial cell structure and feeding. Reproduction and lifecycle. Brief description of major taxa. Distribution and role in environment. Role of fungi in cycle of matter and economy. Lichens. Thallus structure. Syst
4、ematic position of algae and symbiotic fungi in lichens. Relationships between lichen components. Reproduction of lichens. Role of lichens in nature and their practical application. Myxomycetes. General description. Major divisions; their brief description. General description of higher plants. Life
5、cycle of higher plants. Asexual and sexual reproduction. Types of sexual reproduction process in higher plants and their evolutionary relationships. General body plan in higher plants. Leaf structural components and descriptive morphology. Morphology of shoots and shoot systems. Evolutionary origin
6、of root. Morphology of roots and root systems. General description of bryophytes. Divisions of Marchantiophyta, Anthocerotophyta and mosses. Spermaphyta. General description. Gymnosperms. Comparative description of major groups (coniferous, gnetaceous, cycades and Ginkgoaceae). General description o
7、f angiosperms (flowering plants). Flower. Structure of male and female gametophytes. Dicots vs monocots. Zoology System Eukaryota and major groups of Protozoa. Modern views on origin of eukaryotic cell: role of Archaea and Eubacteria, symbiotic origin of organelles, diversity of plastids; flagellar
8、apparatus. Six superkingdoms of Eukaryotes, general description. Lower multicellular organisms. Superphylum Sponges. Modern classification; general description and structure of Bilateria: supertypes Trochozoa, Lophophora, Ecdysozoa and Deuterostomia. System of phylum Chordata, its organization. Syst
9、em of subphylum Tunicata, general description. Ostracoderms as evolutionary innovation, formation of bone tissue. Morphology of Gnathostomata. Morphofunctional and physiological adaptations to aquatic habitat (based on class of bony fishes). Amphibians as first class of terrestrial vertebrates. Tran
10、sformation of locomotor and breathing systems, prey catching, blood circulation, water and salt metabolism and sensory organs, due to aerial habitat and gravitation. Reproduction. Anamnia and Anamniota. Morphobiology of reptiles. Morphobiology of birds. Homeothermia. Morphobiology of mammals. Mechan
11、isms of thermoregulation; breathing, digestive and excretory systems and blood circulation. Reproduction. Anthropology Origin of man. Systematics and description of Primates. Archeological evidence on early hominids; their description and diversity. Early humans. Archanthropos as first human. Cultur
12、e of early humans. Homo heidelbergensis: history of studies, description and distribution. Neanderthals; hypotheses about their extinction. Origin of modern humans: location and timing. Cromanion as the oldest European Homo sapiens. Role of isolation, crossbreeding, adaptation, genetic drift and sex
13、ual selection in human evolution and formation of modern anthropological variations. Ethnic anthropology. Cytology Cell theory and its provisions. Notion of cell. Methods of cell biology. Methods of microscopy (light, fluorescent, phase-contrast, electronic and video-microscopy). Immunocytochemical
14、and cytochemical staining. Radiography. Molecular hybridization. Cell and tissue culture. Structure and function of cell nucleus. Structure of chromatin. Structure of chromosomes. Cell cycle and its phases; chromosome cycle. Levels of chromatin and chromosome packaging. Euchromatin and heterochromat
15、in. Role of histones and non-histone proteins in chromatin packaging. Histone modifications. Karyotype. Chromosome structure. Types of differential staining of chromosomes. Nuclear protein matrix. Nuclear subdomains. Nucleolus and nucleolar organizer; its components, ultrastructure, proteins and rol
16、e in ribosomal RNA synthesis and formation of ribosomal subunits. Cajal bodies, (speckles) and PML. Chromosome territories in interphase nucleus. Nuclear membrane. Nuclear-cytoplasmic transport. Cell membrane components. Structure and properties of biological membranes. Plasmatic membranes. Chemical
17、 composition, structure and functions. Transport of low-molecular and high-molecular compounds. Endocytosis. Transcytosis. Cellular interactions. Cell adhesion. Cell adhesion proteins. Specialized cell contacts. Protein synthesis and topogenesis. Structure of ribosomes. Polysomes. Structure of granu
18、lar ER. Synthesis of secretory, membrane and lysosome proteins in granular ER. Signal sequences. SRP particles. Mechanism of co-translational protein transport to ER membranes and cisterns. Protein modification, folding and targeting. Golgi apparatus. Organization of Golgi apparatus. Protein modific
19、ation and targeting. Role in glycosaminoglycan synthesis. Proteoglycans. Vacuolar pathways and mechanisms of vesicle targeting and fusion with membrane components. Anterograde and retrograde transport. Exocytosis. Smooth ER. Morphology and role in synthesis of lipids, steroid hormones, glycogen, cal
20、cium storage and detoxification (role of cytochrome -450). Cellular digestive system. Lysosomes. Classification, Patterns of formation. Mechanism of autophagosome and autolysosome formation. Cellular power supply. Mitochondria. Chemical composition, structure and functions. Mitochondrial biogenesis.
21、 Origin of mitochondria. Photosynthesis. Chloroplast structure and functions. Cytoskeleton components. Actin microfilaments. Actin monomers and isoforms; polymerization in vitro. Structure of actin filament. Localization and functions of actin filaments. Actin filament-associated proteins. Myosins:
22、structure, functions, localization and role in muscle and non-muscle mobility. Intermediate filaments: classification, properties, organization and localization. Structure and function of microtubules, centrosome, centrioles, basal bodies and axonem. Tubulin polymerization. MAPs. Families of kinesin
23、s and dyneins. Centriolar cycle. Two ways of centriole formation. Non-centrosomal microtubule-organizing centers. Cilia and flagella. Mitosis. Phases of mitosis. Changes in chromosome structure; role of condensines and cohesins. Mitotic spindle; its structure, composition, organization and formation
24、. Kinetochore; its structure and protein composition. Mechanism of chromosome movement. Anaphase A and anaphase B. Telophase. Cytokinesis. Pathology of mitosis. Evolution of mitosis. Meiosis. Formation of sex cells. Phases of meiosis. Prophase I of meiosis. Synaptonemal comples. Mechanism of crossin
25、g-over. Chiasms. Lampbrush chromosomes. First meiotic division, reduction of allele number. Second meiotic division, separation of homologous chromatids reduction of chromosome number. Maturation of sex cells. Cell cycle regulation. Phases of cell cycle. Models and methods for study of cell cycle. G
26、eneral laws of cell cycle and its phases. Exogenous and endogenous regulators. Endogenous regulation. Exogenous regulators: growth factors and cytokines. Cell death. Key concepts: programmed cell death, apoptosis and necrosis, classification. Apoptosis: manifestations in cells, methods of detection,
27、 biochemical and morphological signs and molecular mechanisms. Autophagic cell death. Programmed necrosis. Structure and functions of plant and bacterial cells. Plant cells: chemical composition, structure and formation of cell wall. Types of plastids. Chloroplasts. Cytoskeleton. Mitosis. Plasmodesm
28、ata. Bacterial cells; their structure. Bacterial nucleoid. Photosynthetic components of bacteria. Basal body, flagellum and bacterial cell wall. Bacterial cell division. Histology Definition of tissue. Classification of tissues based on their development (phylogenesis and ontogenesis), functions and
29、 structure. Physiological and reparative regeneration of tissues. Notions of cell population and differon. Differentiation factors. Embryonic and fetal/postnatal (tissue-specific) stem cells. Epithelial tissue. General description and morphofunctional classification of epithelia. Exocrine and endocr
30、ine glands. Hormones and other signal molecules Tissues of internal environment (blood, lymph and connective tissue). Origin, general description of structure and functions. Blood cells and hematopoiesis, Hematopoietic organs. Regulation of hematopoiesis; factors and structures ensuring hematopoiesi
31、s. Cellular basis of immune response. Humoral and cellular basis of inborn and adaptive immunity. Lymphocytes as cells of immune system. General description of organization of central organs (bone marrow and thymus) and peripheral organs (non-encapsulated lymphoid follicles, lymphatic nodes and sple
32、en) of immune system. Fibrous (loose and dense) connective tissues. Structure and chemical composition of intercellular matrix of connective tissue. Dense connective tissue. Cartilage tissue. Bone tissue. Muscle tissue. Mophofunctional characteristics. Smooth muscle tissue. Cross-striated (skeletal)
33、 muscle tissue. Cardiac muscle tissue. Nervous tissue. General morphofunctional characteristics. Types of neurons, their structure. Structure of nerve fibers. Synapses. Neuron-glia interrelations. Neurogenesis in adult brain. Embryology Formation of primary sex cells (gonocytes) in different groups
34、of animals (sponges, coelenterata, nematodes, crustaceans and vertebrates). Distant and contact interaction of gametes. Long-distance and contact interactions between gametes. General description of segmentation. Its biological significance. Switching-on of maternal and paternal genes. Spatial organ
35、ization of segmentation. Mechanisms of blastulation. Ways of gastrulation: delamination, immigration, epiboly, invagination and their combinations. Ways of mesoderm formation. Natural and artificial parthenogenesis: theoretical significance and practical application. Formation of extraembryonic orga
36、ns and envelopes in amniotes: amnion, serosa (chorion), yolk sac and allantois. Early development of mammals. Development of eyes, limbs, heart and kidneys in vertebrates. Morphogenetic interactions between parts of organ buds during development of the organs. Types of mammalian placentas: epithelio
37、chorial, sindesmochorial, endotheliochorial and hemochorial. Genetics Inherited character. Qualitative and quantitative characters; simple and complex traits. Methods of genetic analysis. Monohybrid and poly-hybrid breeding. Alleles and types of their interactions. Cytological basis of laws of inher
38、itance. Conditions for Mendelian laws of inheritance. Gene interaction: complementarity, epistasis and cumulative and non-cumulative polymery. Sex chromosomes. Sex-linked inheritance. Inheritance and chromosome nondisjunction. Crossover. Gene maps. Chromosome theory of inheritance. Non-chromosomal i
39、nheritance. Plastid inheritance. Mitochondrial inheritance. Interaction of nuclear and non-nuclear genes. Hereditary and non-hereditary variations. Interaction between genotype and environment. Combinative variation, its origin and evolutionary role. Genome variations: polyploidy (euploidy and aneup
40、loidy). Interspecies hybridization. Intra-chromosomal and inter-chromosomal recombination: deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation and transposition. Gene mutations. Spontaneous and induced mutagenesis. Physical and chemical mutagens. Role of reparation processes in mutagenesis. Gene control
41、 and molecular mechanisms of replication. DNA reparation; its role in maintaining genome stability. Genetic recombination. Regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes. Lac-operon. Regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes. Post-transcriptional regulation of protein synthesis. Objectives and metho
42、ds of genetic engineering. Methods of gene isolation and synthesis. Plasmid and phage vectors. Genomic libraries. Creation of recombinant DNA molecules. Expression of foreign genes. Transgenic organisms. Eukaryotic vectors. Genetic engineering of plants and animals. Human and animal physiology Struc
43、ture and properties of excitable membranes. Mechanism of formation of resting potential. Nernst equation. Excitation. Action potential: all-or-none response. Ionic mechanism of action potential generation. Conduction of excitation along nerve or muscle fibers. Electrotonic and impulse components of
44、excitation propagation. Transmission of excitation from cell to cell. Electrical and chemical synapses; their structural and functional difference. Chemically controlled ion channels. Post-synaptic potential vs action potential. Action potential generation in muscles. Cross-striated muscles. Structu
45、re of sarcomere. Contractile proteins. Sliding filament theory. Role of and ATP. Neuron as structural and functional unit of nervous system. Neuron structure: soma, dendrites, axon and axon hillock. Axon transport. Central synapses vs neuromuscular synapses. Ionic basis of inhibitory and exciting po
46、st-synaptic activity. Major types of mediators and mechanisms of their interaction with receptors. Mediators and modulators. Afferent, intermediary and efferent neurons. Reflex and reflex arc. Divergence and convergence. Occlusion and facilitation. Exciting and inhibitory connections between neurons
47、. Mechanisms of modulation of synaptic transmission as way to change standard programs; their role in formation of behavioral responses, learning and memory. Sensory systems. Impulse activity generation in receptors (based on photoreceptor); frequency coding of action potential. Afferent pathways to
48、 transmit information to brain. Somatic system. Spinal cord; its reflex action and conductive function. Motor neurons; principle of final common pathway. Motor reflexes of spinal cord. Muscle spindles and tendon organs. Gamma motor neurons and their function. Autonomic nervous system; its role in re
49、gulation of inner organs and maintenance of homeostasis. Structural and functional organization of sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions and their regular interrelationships. Mediators of ANS. Endocrine system. Humoral regulation. Mechanisms of influence targeting. Chemical basis of major groups
50、 of hormones and their interaction with target cells (intracellular and membrane receptors). Secondary messengers (2+ and cyclic nucleotides). Major endocrine glands, their function and hormones. Regulation of activity of endocrine glands; connection between neural and hormonal mechanisms of regulat
