1、Intelligence 智力intelligenceTo the layperson,the term usually includes the abilities to reason logically,speak fluently,solve problems,learn efficiently,and display an interest in the world at large(Siegler&Richards,1982;Sternberg et al.1981)intelligenceAlthough the concept has been the subject of re
2、search and theorizing for more than a century,no single definition has been commonly agreed on,and no one measurement tool assesses intelligence to everyones satisfaction.尽管研究及推理工作超过一个世纪，但智力仍然很难被定义。一些流派的争论悬而未决What is intelligence?One prominent issue:whether intelligence is a unitary phenomenon or co
3、nsists of various separate skills and abilities 智力一元论还是多元论（是一种完整、综合的能力，还是由许多独立的因素所构成的）A second major issue:the best way to conceptualize intelligence 用什么方式去定义智力Psychometric approaches心理测量方法Galton believed people differ in their ability to discriminate among varying physical stimuli.高尔顿认为人们辨别不同物理刺激的能
4、力是不同的，先天就有差异Such differences,according to Galton,are largely innate.Psychometric approaches心理测量方法It was Cattell who coined the term mental test.卡特尔首创“心理测验”这一术语The first formal inelligence test was created in 1905 by Alfred Binet and Simon.1905年比内设计了第一个正式的智力测验Psychometric approaches心理测量方法With the Bin
5、et-Simon test,the mental testing movement was born,and psychometrics became firmly entrenched as a model for understanding intelligence.由此，智力测验运动兴起，并且建立了智力的心理测量模型Psychometric approaches心理测量方法Psychometric models of intelligence are based on the testing of large groups of individuals to quantify diffe
6、rences in abilities.智力的心理测量模型基于团体测验中对能力差异的量化。The basic assumption基本假设是：智力测验中低于平均值或正常水平的人智商低，反之则高。Psychometric approaches心理测量方法Spearmans Two-Factor Theory斯皮尔曼两因素说Intelligence consists of two parts:g因素，一般因素，是人的基本心理潜能，是决定一个人能力高低的主要因素。s,specific knowledge and abilities是保证人们完成某些特定作业或活动所必须的Psychometric ap
7、proaches心理测量方法Thurstones Primary Mental Abilities瑟斯顿群因素论He proposed that the following seven mental abilities are components of intelligence:(1)visual comprehension 视觉理解力 as measured by vocabulary and reading comprehension tests Psychometric approaches心理测量方法Thurstones Primary Mental Abilities瑟斯顿群因素论
8、(2)Word fluency词语流畅性:the ability to generate a number of words in a short period of time(3)Number facility数字能力:the ability to solve arithmetic problemsPsychometric approaches心理测量方法Thurstones Primary Mental Abilities瑟斯顿群因素论(4)Spatial visualization空间视觉:the mental manipulation of geometric forms or sym
9、bols(5)Memory记忆力:the ability to recall lists of words,sentences,or picturesPsychometric approaches心理测量方法Thurstones Primary Mental Abilities瑟斯顿群因素论(6)Reasoning推理能力:the ability to solve analogies or other problems involving formal relations(7)Perceptual speed感知速度:the ability to recognize symbols rapid
10、lyPsychometric approaches心理测量方法Guilfords Structure-of-Intellect Approach吉尔福特 三维结构模型180 factors in intelligence组合产生180种智力These factors are generated by three elements:Operations,contents,and products操作，内容，产品Psychometric approaches心理测量方法Guilfords Structure-of-Intellect Approach吉尔福特 三维结构模型Six operation
11、s,mental processes such as memory and divergent productionFive contents,modalities to which intelligence can be appliedSix products,that an individual can masterPsychometric approaches心理测量方法Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence流体智力与晶体智力Fluid intelligence:biologically based mental abilities that are re
12、latively uninfluenced by cultural experiences.在信息加工和问题解决过程中所表现出来的能力Psychometric approaches心理测量方法Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence流体智力与晶体智力Crystallized intelligence:mental skills derived from cultural experience.指获得语言、数学等知识的能力，决定于后天学习Information-processing approaches信息加工方法Intelligence as Speed of P
13、rocessing智力加工速度Individuals vary in the speed with which they conduct certain cognitive activities.个体在完成特定认知活动时加工速度是不同的。Information-processing approaches信息加工方法Intelligence as Speed of Processing智力加工速度Individual differences in visual attention exist from early childhood and reflect variations in the s
14、peed of processing visual information(Bornstein&Benasich,1986;Colombo,1993)Information-processing approaches信息加工方法Intelligence as Speed of Processing智力加工速度such individual differences in speed of processing information may be related to intelligence,particularly g,the general intelligence originally
15、described by Spearman(Jensen,1982;Jensen&Munroe,1979;Vernon,1983)Information-processing approaches信息加工方法Intelligence as Speed of Processing智力加工速度Individuals may differ in their processing speed because of variations in motivation and attention to the task rather than differences in intellectual abil
16、ity.Information-processing approaches信息加工方法Sternbergs Triarchic Theory of Intelligence斯滕伯格的智力三元理论他认为，一个完备的智力理论必须说明智力的三个方面，即智力的内在成分，智力成分与经验的关系，以及智力成分的外部作用Information-processing approaches信息加工方法Sternbergs Triarchic Theory of Intelligence斯滕伯格的智力三元理论Consists of three major subtheories:The contextual sub
17、theory智力情境亚理论 The componential subtheory智力成分亚理论 The two-facet subtheory智力经验亚理论Information-processing approaches信息加工方法Sternbergs Triarchic Theory of Intelligence斯滕伯格的智力三元理论The contextual subtheory智力情境亚理论Asserts that intelligence must be considered as an adaption to the unique environment in which the
18、 individual lives“有目的地适应、选择、塑造与生活有关的真实的环境世界”Information-processing approaches信息加工方法Sternbergs Triarchic Theory of Intelligence斯滕伯格的智力三元理论The componential subtheory智力成分亚理论Focuses on the internal mental processes involved in intelligent functioning智力包括三种成分及相应的三个过程，即元成分，操作成分，知识获得成分Information-processin
19、g approaches信息加工方法Sternbergs Triarchic Theory of Intelligence斯滕伯格的智力三元理论The two-facet subtheory智力经验亚理论Describes intelligent individuals in terms of(1)their ability to deal with novelty and(2)their tendency to automatize cognitive processes.（1）处理新任务和新环境时所需求的能力（2）信息加工过程自动化的能力Information-processing app
20、roaches信息加工方法Gardners Theory of Multiple Intelligences加德纳的智力多元理论“an ability(or skill)to solve problems or to fashion products which are valued within one or more cultural settings”Information-processing approaches信息加工方法Gardners Theory of Multiple Intelligences加德纳的智力多元理论Seven distinct intelligence:Li
21、nguistic 言语智力:a sensitivity to the meanings and order of words,as well as the functions of languageMusical音乐智力:a sensitivity to pitch,tone,and timbre,as well as musical patternsInformation-processing approaches信息加工方法Gardners Theory of Multiple Intelligences加德纳的智力多元理论Logico-mathermatical逻辑-数学智力:the a
22、bility to handle chains of reasoning,numerical relations,and hierarchical relationsSpatial空间智力:the capacity to perceive the world accurately and to transform and recreate perceptionsInformation-processing approaches信息加工方法Gardners Theory of Multiple Intelligences加德纳的智力多元理论Bodily-kinesthetic运动智力:the a
23、bility to use ones body or to work with objects in highly differentiated and skillful waysIntrapersonal自知智力:the capacity to understand ones own feelings and use them to guide behaviorInformation-processing approaches信息加工方法Gardners Theory of Multiple Intelligences加德纳的智力多元理论Interpersonal社交智力:the abili
24、ty to notice and make distinctions among the moods,temperaments,motivations,and intentions of othersMeasuring IntelligenceIntelligence quotientThe IQ score may or may not be a good indicator of intelligence functioningMeasuring IntelligenceIQ分数假设在人群中呈正态分布，少于3%的人群落在正常智力范围之外.IQ分数超过2个标准差的儿童分数超过130被认为是天
25、才，得分低于70则归为智力障碍Giftedness（一）天才Intellectual ability,academic aptitude,creativity,leadership,and visual or performing arts美国教育部门定义天才的能力为：智力能力、理论能力、创新性、领导力、视觉和表现艺术Giftedness 在一项研究中，2个儿童是专业国际象棋玩家，其中1个具备音乐天赋，是在特定老师的指导下花费很多小时实践他们的能力被发现的，在另一项研究中，世界级音乐家、数学家、运动员在童年时期明显地接受了来自父母、老师、教练的鼓励，并且他们接受了若干年的技能训练。Gifted
26、ness 在智力三原型理论中，斯腾伯格扩展了我们对天才的理解，超越了IQ高分数的心理测量标准。他认为天才儿童显示了几种独特的信息加工能力。Gifted children show several unique information-processing skillsGiftedness 在解决问题时，他们倾向于花费很多时间去计划-选择和组织信息的策略。方法倾向于整体而不是局部，反应了更好的元认知能力 Much time in planning Less time in encoding the details More global than localGiftedness 对于处理新异事物
27、和自动化加工能力，他们能力更好地辨别有用的问题解决策略 Gifted children are better able to deal with novelty and to automatize their information processing.Giftedness 天才儿童在加工刺激方面匹配他们特殊的天赋似乎更具有效率和速度。Gifted children are apparently more efficient and speedier in processing stimuli that match their particular talents.Giftedness 基于
28、此，研究者认为天才儿童与其他儿童的区别不是性质上的，而是程度上的。A matter of degree,not qualitativeMental Retardation 智力障碍 美国智障协会定义智障为：低于平均智力水平，并且在儿童期表现出2个或更多适应行为方面的限制。Mental Retardation 智障被鉴定为4个水平：轻度、中度、重度、极重度。Mild moderate severe profound 一些智力损伤的例子与基因因素有关，如唐氏综合症、PKU、或在出生前或围产期大脑和中枢神经系统发展和功能受到外界干扰。Mental Retardation 当有生物原因存在时，智障被称
29、为器质性的，大多数严重的智障形式属于此类。如果智障没有明显的器质性根源，被怀疑由贫困、无刺激的环境、低智商的潜在遗传所导致，有70%到80%的智障属于这种类型，轻度和中度，叫做非器质性或非正式智障。Mental Retardation 智障儿童与正常儿童相比较其智力不仅是程度的区别，而且在一些方面表现出不足：注意难集中；几乎没有记忆策略，因此保持信息的能力在长短时记忆中被阻碍；不能将知识在不同学习情境中转换。一些专家表示，不清楚器质性智障儿童是否在其他智力加工方面有同样的结构，但他们在获得认知技能方面的发展过程可能是独特的。Mental Retardation 一些为智障儿童加标签，如“缓慢学习者”、“例外儿童”、“特殊需要儿童”，这种行为不能被普遍接受。另一个关注焦点是智障儿童所在的特殊学校被鼓励实践正常学校中班级的主要活动。
