1、Chapter 5Change of MeaningObjectives of this chapter To understand the nature of semantic change;To learn the major modes of semantic change:extension,narrowing,elevation,degradation,transfer;To understand the causes of semantic change.Vocabulary 1.most unstable element of a language 2.undergoing co
2、nstant changes both in form and content paratively,meaning even more unstable Quirk:.almost every word we use today has a slightly different meaning from the one it had a century ago,and a century ago it had a slightly different meaning from the one it had a century before that.Shakespeares use If y
3、ou do meet Horatio and Marcellus,the rivals of my watch,bid them make haste(from Hamlet)（Hamlet里Barnardo说）你若是遇见我的同班的伙伴何瑞修和马赛勒斯，叫他们快点来 rival=partner,the rivals of my watch：我的守夜的伙伴们（上面译文中的同班，指的是同一班守卫）How pregnant sometimes his replies are（Polonius在解读Hamlet装疯的痴话时说）pregnant=meaningful Contents 1.Polysem
4、y 2.Types of semantic change1.Polysemy Definition:the same word may have two or more different meanings When a word is first coined,it is always monosemic.But in the course of development,the same symbol must be used to express more meanings.The result is polysemy.But How does a word acquire new mea
5、nings?In what way are the meanings related to one another?(1)Primary meaning&derivative meaning Primary meaning refers to what a word originally meant and the derivative meaning refers to the meaning springing from the original meaning.This process can be demonstrated by the following chart.legFurth
6、er notes on primary meaning&derivative meaning There are also many instances in which the primary meaning gave birth to new meanings,and as a result the primary meaning became either obsolete or disappeared altogether.harvest-time of cutting(primary meaning)-reaping and gathering the crops,a seasons
7、 yield of grain or fruit(derivative meanings)pain-penalty or punishment preserved only in such phrases as“pains and penalty”and“upon/under pain of”(primary meaning)-suffering,great discomfort of the body or mind(derived meanings)(2)Central meaning&secondary meaningRadiation:an important process by w
8、hich words extend their meaning.The primary or central meaning appears at the center in the form of a hub and secondary meanings radiate out from it like the spoke of a wheel.Example:see P90 Radiation This kind of developing process can bedemonstrated by the following picture.Radiation Each of the s
9、econdary meaning is independent of all the rest,and may be traced back to the central signification.power(ability to act)control over ones subordinatedelegated authorityphysical strengthConcatenation Concatenation:opposed to radiation,it means a word moves gradually away from its original sense as a
10、 result of successive semantic changes until there is not a trace of connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary sense.Concatenation This process can be demonstrated by the following chart:Concatenationgay(WNWD-Webster s New World Dictionary 韦氏新世界美语词典韦氏新世界美语词典):(1)joyous a
11、nd lively;merry;happy (2)bright,brilliant (3)given to social life and pleasure (4)wanton;licentious (5)homosexual The arrangement follows the natural development.gay(LDCE-Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English朗文当代高级词典)(1)homosexual (2)bright or attractive (3)cheerful;happy;full of fun gay(CCELD-
12、Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary 柯林斯合作英语词典)(1)homosexual (2)lively and enjoyable(person)(3)lively and interesting(place)(4)bright and pretty(colour)(5)lively and pleasant(music)Labour Day,Labour Day,We are happy and gay!Radiation and Concatenation Radiation and concatenation are closely r
13、elated,but are different stages of the development leading to polesemy.Generally,radiation precedes concatenation.In many cases,the two processes work together,complementing each other.2.Types of semantic changeWord-meaning changes by modes of extension,narrowing,elevation,degradation,and transfer.O
14、f these,extension and narrowing are by far the most common.b.Specialization/Restriction of meaning c.Elevation/Amelioration of meaningd.Degradation/Degeneration of meaninga.Generalization/Extension of meaningg.Transference of meaninge.The use of abstract for the concrete or vice versaf.Common words
15、from proper namesTask:Do you know how the word“sandwich”comes into being?How is this word used today?(1)Generalization/Extension of meaningHere is the story of the word.The most popular perspective regarding the origin of the word sandwich,which we use today,is that it was born in London during the
16、very late hours one night in 1762 when an English nobleman,John Montagu,the Fourth Earl of Sandwich(1718-1792),was too busy gambling to stop for a meal even though he was hungry for some food.The legend goes that he ordered a waiter to bring him roast-beef between two slices of bread.The Earl was ab
17、le to continue his gambling while eating his snack;and from that incident,we have inherited that quick-food product that we now know as the sandwich.The Earl apparently had the meat put on slices of bread so he wouldnt get his fingers greasy while he was playing cards.Its strange that the name of th
18、is sex fiend should have gone down in history connected to such an innocent article of diet.sandwich n.&v.,squeeze in between two other people,places,things,materials,etc.He is willing to sandwich an appointment in between two other meetings.Her car was sandwiched between two other cars in the parki
19、ng lot.Definition of Generalization It refers to the stretching of meaning.For example,thing “a political or judicial assembly”any thing extension=generalization:change from a specific meaning to a more general one Examples of Generalization manuscript=hand+writing 1)first draft written by hand 2)wr
20、iting by any means Holiday1)Holy Day 2)any day or days without work or study Examples of GeneralizationTechnical terms used as common words:feedback(computer)=response allergic(medicine)=averse to anything More examples of generalizationplace for grinding grain into flourdaily paperfire on bonesone
21、who kills goatsone who shares bread2)Specialization Task:Can you tell what kind of change in meaning has happened to deer according the line from Shakespeare:rats and mice and such small deer.Deer-obviously designates animal in general.Such kind of meaning change is called Narrowing,also called Spec
22、ialization.Definition of Specialization Narrowing=specialization:change from a general meaning to a specific meaning wife woman a married woman e.g.The Merry Wives of Winsor 温莎的风流娘儿们 housewife;midwife More examples of specializationliquidfooddiscomfortdrinkwomaneventyoung person of either sex(3)Elev
23、ation Task:The meanings of the following three words have experienced similar changes.What is the common feature?nice marshal constable Nice originally meant ignorant,then it is changed to mean foolish and now elevated to mean delightful,pleasant.Marshal once meant a keeper of horses,now its meaning
24、s has risen to a high-ranking army officer.Constable once meant keeper of horses;it has a more pleasant meaning in modern English,i.e.,policeman.More examples of elevationmessengerservantmanpilotfoolishservantCharacteristics of Elevation elevation=amelioration:change from negative to positive from d
25、erogatory to appreciative from neutral to appreciative from unimportant to important(4)Degradation/Degeneration The meaning of a word narrows toward an unfavorable meaning is called degeneration or pejorative change.More examples of degradationhappyboyignorantappraisepleasureworker at a villaskillfu
26、lhomosexualCharacteristics of Degeneration degradation=pejoration:change from appreciative to pejorative from positive to negative from important to unimportant from neutral to negative(5)The use of abstract for the concrete or vice versa The application of the name of a quality to a person.It is th
27、e reverse of personification.For example“she is virtue itself”.Transfer between abstract and concrete meaning.Examples aftermath second crop of grass after mowing(concrete)result or consequence(abstract)Examples envy feeling of such(abstract)a person to be envied(concrete)e.g.Mary is the envy of the
28、 class.(concrete)Clinton is the hope of the family(6)Common words from proper names The use of a proper noun(from history or literature)to convey a general idea is known as antonomasia.For example“Shylock”“a money-grabber”ExampleFrankenstein a character in the novel written by famous British woman w
29、riter Mary W.Shelley.He is a medical researcher,who created a robot monster,brought it to life and finally was killed by the monster.Example Frankenstein是英国作家 Mary Wollstonecraft-Shelley 于1818年所著小说中的生理学研究专家。他创造了一个怪物，结果被这个怪物所毁灭。The United States is raising a Frankenstein by providing hardware to that
30、 country.美国向那个国家提供军事武器，到头来只会作法自毙。(7)Transference of meaningTwo aspects of conception:A.that of the person or thing possess or exercises it;B.that of the person or thing that is affected by it.The difference between the active agent and the effect produced,between the cause and that which it causes,b
31、etween the subjective and objective,is very great.The process by which the difference has occurred in the development of a language is called transference of meaning.Transference between subjective and objective meaning The old man is hateful.The old man is hated by people.The old man receives hate.
32、(objective)The teacher was suspicious of the students excuse.The teacher suspected the students excuse.(subjective)Transference between subjective and objective meaning suspicious subjective/objective fearful subjective/objective doubtful subjective/objective The man looks suspicious as his behavior
33、 is unusual.(objective)The neighbours are suspicious of the man as his behaviour is unusual.(subjective)Transference between subjective and objective meaning The teacher was doubtful1 of the doubtful2 excuse of the student.(1)subjective (2)objective Transference between subjective and objective meaning painful objective considerate subjective respectable objective respectful subjective courageous subjective dangerous objective Transference between subjective and objective meaning Characteristics of verbs:subjective:having showing full of objective:causing deserving bringing
