1、ARGUMENTATIONIntroduction of CONTENTS目录1.Definition 2.Principles and Conventions 3.Argument structures 4.Strategy 6.An example 5.Common logical fallacies and weakness in argument A debatable point Chinese doctors use acupuncture anesthesia to perform certain operations.Acupuncture anesthesia should
2、replace conventional anesthesia in all operations.A debatable point Lady Gaga is my favorite star.Lady Gaga is the most popular star of the 21th century.A debatable point Noise pollution is harmful to peoples health.Noise pollution is the most harmful of all environmental pollution.What is argumenta
3、tion?Argumentation is analyzed,review of a problem or something,that a style of their own point of view,position,attitude,views and propositions.Critical reviewEditorialsResumeLetters to the editorsExamples of argumentation writing are:Job evaluationJob application letterLetter of recommendation2.Pr
4、inciples and Conventions A good argumentation should abide by the following conventions:Follow the rules of reasonThree kinds of evidence:objective data,social consensus,personal credibility and experienceEvidence must be presented logicallyThree types of appeals:ethos(喻德）喻德）,logos（喻理）（喻理）,pathos（喻情
5、）（喻情）14A well-defined,controversial issueA clear position taken by the writerA convincing argument 23A reasonable toneA good argumentation should include:1.A well-defined,controversial issue:e.g.lFirst children are smarter-But why?l Marriage makes our children richer Heres why l Eating popcorn in th
6、e cinema makes people immune to advertising lMen and women cant be just friends 2.A clear position taken by the writere.g.CorrectlCan heterosexual men and women ever be“just friends”?a new study suggests that men,relative to women,have a particularly hard time being“just friends.”e.g.ErrorlXXX is on
7、e of the most important things in peoples life.It has many advantages.However,just as every coin has two sides,XXX also has some disadvantages.3.A convincing argumentfacts,statistics,testimony,examples 4.A reasonable toneI beliveI thinkCONTENTS目录1.Definition 2.Principles and Conventions 3.Argument s
8、tructures 4.Strategy 6.An example 5.Common logical fallacies and weakness in argument Convergent argumentArgument structures 1.Simple argumentClaim Support inference A simple argument only contains a claim,a support and a inference,as shown in the following:SUPER NANNIES To keep up with the times,No
9、rland College in England,trainning nannies,has added two new classes to its curriculum:martial arts and stunt driving(特技驾驶).Why?Because the children of the rich and famous are often targeted by the paparazzi(狗仔队),and could potentially become victims of kidnapping（绑架）attempts.So,Noland thinks its naa
10、nnies need to know how to handle these high-risk situations.Claim Support/Claim Support inferenceinferenceA chain argument contains more than one layers of argument.The support of the first layer becomes the claim of the second layer,which needs further support,as shown in the following:relay race 接
11、力比赛2.Chain argument小伙伴，此处有视频哦！3.Compound argumentA compound argument contains more than one support for the same claim,as shown in the following:Claim Support inferenceinferenceinferenceSupport Support CELEBRITIES WHO FELL FROM GRACE 那些自毁前途的明星 “The higher you go,the harder you fall”is a common Engli
12、sh expression.It means the more successful you become,the more you have to lose.And its an experience shared by many celebrities who have ruined their careers by doing something stupid or illegal.Here are some famous people who have fallen from grace.Tiger Woods In 2009,Tiger Woods was the best golf
13、er in the worldBut then he had an affair.In December2009,the tabloids（小报）revealed that Woods had cheated on his wife with more than 12 women Lindsay Lohan Between 2003 and 2005,Lindsay Lohan starred in a string of highly successful films and became known as the teen move queenUnfortunately,in 2006,L
14、indsay started drinking and doing drugs;and since 2007,shes been arrested over twenty times.Phil Spector is currently in prison for murder.Lance Armstrong use performance enhancing drugs.Should Smoking Be Banned?It has become fashionable in the world today to condemn smoking.However,although I feel
15、that smoking can be harmful,I do not think it should be banned.First,smoking undoubtedly helps many people to relax.For some,it .A further point is that governments throughout the world make huge profits from levying taxes on cigarettes.This provides funds .I would also argue that people should have
16、 the right to choose whether they smoke or not.People should not smoke .兄弟，来兄弟，来一根呀！一根呀！Support Support Support Claim 4.Convergent argumentClaim Support inferenceSupport A convergent argument requires two supports to work together for a claim.In other words,only one support cannot stand well without
17、 the other,as shown in the following.rather than it tells you a structure,it teaches you a way to think：well-knit（严谨）1、its so cold outside,lets have hot pot for dinner ok?3、because it s better to eat spicy food in cold weather！4、ok,lets go!最后，他们最后，他们在一起了！在一起了！2、why do we have to eat hot pot?The weat
18、her is so cold today.we should eat hot pot for dinner today.Its best to eat spicy food in cold weather.热火锅结构热火锅结构5.Complex argumentClaim Support Support/Claim Support Support Support Support A complex argument combines all the above structures and usually appears to be the final outline of an argume
19、ntation,an shown in the following:Sherlock：Watson is his flatmateWatson need to get a flatshare.Just after lunch,Mike and Watson come.Watson got shotWatson cant afford London on an Army pension.Sherlock told Mike that he is a difficult man to find a flatmate.小伙伴，此处有视频哦！Convergent argumentArgument st
20、ructures CONTENTS目录1.Definition 2.Principles and Conventions 3.Argument structures 4.Strategy 6.An example 5.Common logical fallacies and weakness in argument Strategies1.Reasoning2.Example3.Raising figures4.Contrast and comparison5.Making concessions6.Quotation7.Analogy.1.ReasoningReasoning is to o
21、rganise the causes and effects in a logical way.inductive reasoning（归纳法）reasoning from detailed facts to general princiles(or from effect to cause)deductive reasoning(演绎法)reasoning from the general to the particular(or from cause to effect)常用关联词therefore,as a result,consequently,fortunately,surprisi
22、ngly.常用句式As，since，becauseDue to，owing to，Because of，thanks to The reason why is that be related to be associated with contribute to“Facts speak louder than words.”-Abraham Lincoln Sometimes a specific example is more useful in supporting your claim.2.Example常用关联词as an illustration,for example,in par
23、ticular,specifically,to illustrate,to demonstrate.常用句式A good case in point is that A typical example can be found in Claim:opinions on the safety of genetically modified food are drasticly varied.支持：便宜、安全又环保，为什么不选择它呢？反对：又没有足够的实验证明转基因食品绝对安全，所以应该谨慎对待！“Let the data speak for themselves.”Statistic data
24、from an authentic research paper could be a very powerful support of your claim.3.Raising figuresWays to present figures:table(表格)line graph（折线图）bar chart（柱状图）pie chart（饼状图）process diagram（流程图）Claim:is very papular,expecially among young women.4.Contrast and comparisonclaim:It is more expensive to l
25、ive in China than in America.e.g.Assume that you earn 8000/month in China and your.American counterpart Peter earns 8000$/month in America.for you:60 years for Peter:6 yearsfor you:10 years for Peter:0.5 years20 4$常用关联词Likewise,similarlyIn contrast,on the contrary,while,whereas.5.Making concessionsI
26、t is a indirect way to express your disagreement with an opinion.It helps to make your refutation much softer so that you dont offend others and thus makes your opinion more acceptable.常见表达AlthoughthoughAs is grantedIn spite of the fact that Opponents would argue that 小伙伴，此处有视频哦！6.QuotationA quotati
27、on is a phrase from a book,research,play,etc,that sb repeats because it is interesting or useful.Using quotation in your argumentation makes it more objective and unbiased,thus your claim may seem more credible and authoritive.In the middle of difficulty lies opportunity.-Albert Einstein 常用句式Just as
28、 sb puts it.According to a recent study.A recent opinion poll revealed that A cat is a good cat only if it can catch a mouse.-Xiaoping Deng A soldier who doesnt want to be a general is not a soldier.-Napolon Bonaparte7.AnalogyAnalogy is an inference that if things agree in some respects they probabl
29、y agree in others.e.g.water is to fish what air is to humans.I love you,just like mice like rice.常用句式A is to B what C is to D.Just like.CONTENTS目录1.Definition 2.Principles and Conventions 3.Argument structures 4.Strategy 6.An example 5.Common logical fallacies and weakness in argument 1.Absolute sta
30、tements Although it is important to convince readers by making a strong impression,avoid making absolute claims that can be dismissed with a single exception.example We cant communicate with people from other country without learning English.要不咱说中文？成啊。小伙伴，此处有视频哦！Money is everything.The heart made by
31、 money is empty.example男人没一个好东西 No one can deny the fact that There is no doubt that Everyone/everything/nothing.2.False dilemma Avoid overdramatizing your case by offering readers only two alternatives.Most readers will immediately recognize the weakness of such an unrealistic argument.example Its
32、necessary to or we will America-love it or leave it!lovehate老妈女盆友3.Basing arguments on personalitiesDont presume that readers will be impressed by citing endorsements by famous people.The fact that a celebrity or single experts supports your argument is not convincing evidence.Dont attack the person
33、ality of opposing authorities or reject an idea because someone controversial supports it.National health care,for example,were tenets of both Nazism and Communism.exampleKathie Lee Gifford,a popular TV celebrity,says that cruises are wonderful,so they must be.我是权威我怕谁！National health care,for exampl
34、e,were tenets of both Nazism and Communism.4.False analogy Comparisons form weak arguments.Although they may be useful to illustrate an idea,they rarely provide convincing evidence.The fact that an educational policy works in Japan does not mean it will work in the United States.exampleThe fact that
35、 a policy works in the past doesnt means it still works in today.Birth control policy is essential to our social and economic system.5.Hasty generalizations Make sure that any conclusions are based on sufficient evidence and not coincidence or simple circumstance.example French people are more roman
36、tic Asian students are better in math.6.Begging the questions Avoid assuming elements that must be proven.You cannot argue,“the outmoded computer systems must be replaced,”until you prove that the system is indeed outdated.example The weakest countries have no real international status.这话谁说的？Absolut
37、e statementsBasing arguments on personalitiesHasty generalizationsFalse dilemmaFalse analogyBegging the questions Logical fallacies I strongly recommend that people should I agree to the point to some extent.I would like to believe thatshould be Formypart/Astome/AsfarasIamconcerned,Idliketoagreetoth
38、eformerpointofview./Myfavorgoestothefirstpointofview.Thereareprobablysometruthsinbotharguments/statements.ItistruethatBut Personally,Iprefer/Iminfavorof/onthesideofHow to express your opinion：CONTENTS目录1.Definition 2.Principles and Conventions 3.Argument structures 4.Strategy 6.An example 5.Common l
39、ogical fallacies and weakness in argument To begin with,Disneyland to be built in Shanghai will boost the employment in face of tough job market globally.Obviously,another benefit will be spiritual enjoyment and cultural amusement.Moreover,this will be another golden opportunity to elevate Shanghais
40、 international metropolis image,aside from the 2010 World Expo.China has become the third largest entity.Embracing multi-cultures and integration into globalization are the inexorable trend.I believe Disneyland to be built in Shanghai will be a correct choice,not only for Shanghai,but also for China
41、.Should We Build Disneyland in Shanghai?ArgumentationArgumentation3.Argument structures 1.Definition 5.Common logical fallacies and weakness in argument 4.Strategy 2.Principles and Conventions 6.An example 谢谢观看THANK YOU总总 负负 责：郝晓帅责：郝晓帅PPT PPT 制作：林制作：林 洁洁1212部分：王思桐部分：王思桐 徐徐 菲菲第第 3 3 部分：陈部分：陈 晨晨 郭郭嫚嫚嫚嫚 郝晓帅郝晓帅第第 4 4 部分：张部分：张 楠楠 张林霞张林霞 第第 5 5 部分：苏部分：苏 昕昕第第 6 6 部分：闫部分：闫 妍妍
