1、.Word Meaning().Definition:Meaning is a notion in semantics classically defined as having two components:reference,anything in the referential realm denoted by a word or expression,and sense,the system of paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationships between a lexical unit and other lexical units in a
2、language.The English linguist,Eric Partridge,says:“Words have no meaning;people have meaning for them.”（词本无义，人赋予之。）I say:“Words are words,because they are meaningful.”A complete word:meaning (房子)form -referent (house)这个图形表示:第一,词有两个方向“形式”和“意义(概念)”.“形式”指的是拼写;与此相对的是词的“意义(概念)”,也就是词的内容.每个词都有一定的形式和意义,这两方面
3、缺一不可.第二,词义与所指对象连接在一起.一方面,词义在客观世界中是有所指的;另一方面,词义又是客观世界的某一(或某些)事物在语言中的反映.第三,在“语义三角”中,“形式”和“所指对象”间不是实线,而是用虚线连接起来的,说明它们两者之间没有必然的直接关系.也就是说,house 和之间没有必然联系，它们之间是约定俗成的 Why do we name a“house”There is no way to explain“why”.However,there is some way to explain“house”in“It houses us.”or“We are housed.”So,word
4、s may have two natures:“conventionality”and“motivation”.().Natures of Word Meaning:1.Conventionality（约定俗成）Most English words are conventional，arbitrary symbols;consequently,there is no intrinsic relation between the symbol and its sense.There is no way to explain why this or that symbol has this or
5、that meaning.2.Motivation:（理据形成）Motivation refers to the connection between word symbol and its sense.From the point of view of motivation,the great majority of English words are conventional.However,there is a small group of words that can be described as motivated,that is,a direct connection betwe
6、en the symbol and its sense can be really observed.Motivation can arise in three major ways:(1).Phonetic motivation:(onomatopoeic words)(2).Morphological motivation:(derivation,compounding,conversion)(3).Semantic motivation:Semantic motivation refers to motivation based on semantic factors.It is a k
7、ind of mental association.eg:the leg of a table,a stony heart,Her favorite dish is steak.He manages to earn bread.().Main Types of Word Meaning Word meaning is made up of various components which are interrelated and interdependent.These components are commonly described as types of meaning.Two main
8、 types of word meaning are grammatical and lexical.1.Grammatical meaning:(1).word-class:modern(adj)modernize(v)modernization(n)(How to use them?)(2).Inlfectional paradign:（词形变化）cat cats write writes wrote written writing 2.Lexical meaning:(1).Denotative meaning:It is the central factor in linguistic
9、 communication.eg:chair 椅子 mother 母亲 man 男人 woman 女人 politician 政客 blood 血液 chicken 小鸡 adult 成年人 (2).Connotative meaning:eg:chair 官位 mother love,care,tenderness man 勇敢，强壮，责任心，大度 woman 意志薄弱，爱流泪，多情善感 (Anyway,she is a woman.)politician 欺诈，夸夸其谈 blood 出身，亲情，民族 (Blood is thicker than water.He has Canadian
10、 blood)chicken 懦弱，胆怯 adult 责任 (3).Social meaning:Based on:the social relationship between the speakers;the occasion;the subject matter;the mode of speech;etc.eg:Whats your age?（对求职者）你吃了吗？(denotative meaning;connotative meaning)(4).Affective meaning:a.Interjections:Oh!Alas!Ouch!b.Approval and disappr
11、oval:mother,scholar,masterpiece,career,buzz,gang,boast,workaholic,etc.c.Bias:slender skinny,statesman politician,famous notorious proud arrogant （褒义）（贬义）().Polysemy and Homonymy As a word is a purely arbitrary and conventional symbol without any intrinsic connection with what it refers to,it may som
12、etimes happen that more than one meaning is attached to a word,or two or more words may have the same form but be different in meaning.The former is known as Polysemy,and the latter,Homonymy.1.Polysemy（一词多义）(1).Definition:Polysemy is a term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which
13、has a range of different meanings.If you look at any English dictionary,you will know how frequent Polysemy is.One-meaning words are very rare.(They are often scientific terms:oxygen,monoxide,moonwalk,hepatitis,penicillin,etc).It may be said that Polysemy is the rule and Monosemy is the exception.Th
14、e more common a word is,the more meanings it has.eg:“get”,“do”,“make”,“take”,“have”,etc.Polysemy is also an essential feature of a languages economy and efficiency.Just imagine what a heavy burden it would be on our memory if it had not been for Polysemy.(2).Approaches or processes leading to Polyse
15、my:a.original meaning extended meaning pen（羽毛）（笔）train（拖裙）（火车）plane（刨子）（飞机）bulb（球茎）（电灯泡）crane（鹤）（起重机）b.general meaning specific meaning light（光）（灯）：turn on the light gas（气体）（煤气）：turn on the gas fire（火）（客厅里的炉火）c.abstract meaning concrete meaning beauty:Beauty is but skin deep.美只是外表罢了。In the eyes of t
16、he lover,his beloved is a beauty.success:Hard work leads to success.He is a great success.failure:（同success）d.concrete meaning abstract meaning head:具体“头”抽象“头脑”Use your head!eye:具体“眼睛”抽象“眼光，鉴赏力”She has an eye for art.nerve:具体“神经”抽象“勇气，力量”Did he have the nerve to say that?e.literal meaning figurative
17、 meaning gardener（园丁）（教师）beast（野兽）（凶残的人）flaw（裂缝）（缺点）cool（凉的）（冷淡的）Achilles heel（阿基里斯的脚后跟）（致命弱点）The Sword of Damocles（达摩克利斯之剑）（时刻存在的危险）crocodile tears（鳄鱼的眼泪）（假慈悲）acid（酸性的，酸的）（尖刻的）2.Homonymy（同形异义）(1).Definition:Homonymy is commonly used to refer to the linguistic phenomenon that words are identical in
18、pronunciation,spelling,or both,but different in meaning.(2).Types of Homonymy:a.perfect homonyms:Words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning are called perfect homonyms.eg:lie（躺；说谎）still（静止的；仍然）right（正确的；右边的；权利）bear（熊；忍耐；出生）pupil（瞳孔；小学生）sound（声音；健全的；测探；海峡）b.homophones:Words identi
19、cal in sound but different in spelling and meaning are called homophones.eg:air（空气）heir（后嗣，继承人）bear（熊；忍耐；出生)bare（光秃的）hair（头发）hare（野兔）meet（遇见)mete（边界)meat（肉）right（正确的；右边的）write（写）wright（工人）c.homographs:Words identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning are called homographs.eg:leadli:dv.领
20、导 leadledn.铅 teartin.眼泪 teartv.撕开 minuteminitn.分钟 minutemainju:tadj.微小的 ().Sense Relations between Words Words may be classified according to the relationships between their senses.Hence,we will give a brief account of the semantic relations of similarity (synonymy),oppositeness(antonymy),and inclus
21、ion(hyponymy).1.Synonymy（同义）(1).Definition:Synonyms（同义词）are traditionally defined as words differing in sound form but identical or similar in meaning.Synonyms are based on the denotative meaning.In every synonymous group a common denotative component brings the words together.Such an agreement in d
22、enotation is the most important criterion of Synonymy.eg:head chief boss leader （同义，但不是同义词）statesman politician （褒义）（贬义）adult grown-up （正式）（口语）chap（英口）fellow（美口）guy（美俚）eg:head chief boss leader （同义，但不是同义词）statesman politician （褒义）（贬义）adult grown-up （正式）（口语）chap（英口）fellow（美口）guy（美俚）(2)Kinds of Synony
23、ms plete synonyms:word-formation word-building spirant fricative（摩擦音）malnutrition undernourishment b.relative synonyms:Degree:small tiny minute microscopic anger rage fury indignation Effective:small little a small boy a little boy 但：Poor little boy!Poor small boy!Shade:refuse decline reject refuse
24、sb(sbs request),refuse a gift,refuse to do sth,decline an invitation,reject an appeal（驳回上诉），reject a bill（否决议案）Stylistic:man(neutral)chap(colloquial)fellow(colloquial)guy(slang)Collocation:pretty(girl)handsome(boy)a flock of(birds)a crowd of(people)a school of(fish)a swarm of(bees)Distribution:livin
25、g alive sleeping asleep (3).Sources of Synonyms The English language is noted for its wealth of Synonyms.“The richness of English in Synonyms is largely due to the happy mingling of Latin,French and native elements.”Native Latinfriendshipamityhelpaidhideconcealto tireto fatigueNativeFrenchLatinaskqu
26、estioninterrogatefireflameconflagrationrisemountascendtimeageepoch(4).Significance of the Appropriate Use of Synonyms a.to avoid repetition:We were greatly surprised to see so great a crowd of people assembled,evidently for some great occasion.On inquiry we learned that a great man was to address th
27、e people on a subject of great interest.The great size of the field,which sloped like an amphitheater,enabled the great crowd to hear every word with great ease,and all listened with great attention to the great thoughts presented.该段略用了太多great，显得很重复，如果用同义词代替就能避免：We were much surprised to see so larg
28、e a crowd of people assembled,evidently for some important occasion.On inquiry we learned that a eminent man was to address the people on a subject of special interest.The ample size of the field,which sloped like an amphitheater,enabled the vast crowd to hear every word with perfect ease,and all li
29、stened with utmost attention to the noble thoughts presented.b.to emphasize:There are temporary setbacks and reverses.To serve the people is his highest aim and object.They raved about the opportunities and chances of doing fine work in the new factory.His explanation is clear and clean.Why must it
30、be?Should it be,really?She choked and stifled.2.Antonymy (1).Definition:Antonymy is the standard technical term for oppositeness of meaning between words.Words that are opposite in meaning are Antonyms.(2).Types of Antonyms a.semantic contrast:(a)Contraries（相对性反义词）rich poor heavy light deep shallow
31、（以上形容词是gradable:richricherrichest）fool wiseman(n)love hate(v)up down(adv)(b)Complementaries（互补反义词）alive dead single married present absent male female right left （以上形容词是nongradable:没有比较级和最高级）(c)Conversives（换位反义词）lend borrow take bring immigrate emigrate husband wife employer employee hire fire host
32、guest b.morphological structure:(a)Root Antonyms（词根反义词）：shallow deep love hate up down 以上a部分谈到的全部属于此种。(b)Derivational Antonyms（派生反义词）：happy unhappy like unlike(dislike)harmful harmless advantage disadvantage (3).Significance of the Application of Antonyms Clever application of Antonyms will improve
33、the language effect by making it contrastive,humorous,etc.a.showing a striking contrast:first and last（总的来说）More haste,less speed.（欲速则不达）No pains,no gains.We shall support any friend,oppose any foe.If they offend,we shall defend.b.forming oxymoron:open secret endless minute a clever fool cruel kindn
34、ess an honest lie living death 3.Hyponymy（上下义关系）(1).Definition of Hyponymy:Hyponymy is the relationship which obtains between specific and general lexical items,such that the former is included in the latter.(2).Examples:color -Red black white yellow brown grey blue Food meat vegetablefruit beefpork
35、muttoncabbagecarrotspinachappleorangebanana (3).Significance of Hyponymy a.Usually general terms suffice our purpose.eg:We went there last year.（模糊语言）(It is clear enough to tell someone where we went.We do not have to describe how we got there.)b.Specific terms can be usefully employed to make ones
36、speech or writing more vivid and precise.().Changes in the Word Meaning When a word loses its old meaning and comes to refer to something altogether different,the result is a change of word meaning.“Changes of meaning is a commonplace,and indeed it would appear to be fundamental in living language.a
37、lmost every word we use today has a slightly different meaning from the one it had a century ago:and a century ago it had a slightly different meaning from the one it had a century before that.”So meanings of words are changing.Why?Five reasons are noticeable:Historical cause;Social cause;Foreign in
38、fluence;Psychological cause Linguistic cause;Meanings of words tend to change.Here well talk about the four tendencies in semantic change:1.Restriction of meaning(specialization)(1).Definition:Restriction of meaning means that a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower,specialized sense which is app
39、licable to only one of the objects it had previously denoted.(2).Types of Restriction:a.general specific business:all things commerce wife:woman married woman corpse:body dead body b.abstract concrete room:space a room beauty:nature a beauty success:quality a success failure:quality a failure mon na
40、mes proper names state the States continent the Continent congress the Congress china China sedan Sedan mon terms technical terms memory:记忆 （电脑）存储器 soft:柔软的 （语音学）浊音的；（化学）易 极化的；（市场）疲软的 2.Extension of meaning(generalization)(1).Definition:Extension of meaning means the widening of a words sense until
41、it covers much more than what it originally conveyed.Restriction is far more frequent than extension.(2).Types of extension:a.specific general holiday:(religious)holy day day of festivity or recreation pipe:musical instrument anything like that salary:salt payment journal:daily any magazine b.concre
42、te abstract thing:place:c.proper names common names newton,wat,sandwich,Shylock,Lei Feng,bible,jack,smith d.technical terms common terms budget:（经济）预算 计划，安排 catalyst:催化剂 促成因素 immune:免疫的 不受影响的 3.Degeneration of meaning(pejoration)(1).Definition:Degeneration of meaning is the falling of word meaning i
43、nto disrepute,for one reason or another.silly:In old English,it means“blessed and happy”.Since blessed people are usually those innocent of evil,the word came to mean“innocent”in the 17th century.As innocent people are often those who live simple lives,it later came to mean“simple”and“simple-minded”
44、,which is often associated with“lack of intelligence”;hence the modern meaning the word“silly”becomes“foolish”.In this way“silly”degenerated from a term of respect to one of contempt.girl:This word is no problem in our daily life.But when it comes to a red-light district,it means .4.Elevation of mea
45、ning(amelioration)A process of a word meaning taking a turn for the better in the course of time is known as Elevation.eg:fond:foolish 喜爱 marshal:horse tender 元帅 job:(slang)housework work Word meaning is changing every day.For some words,old meanings are dying with new meanings coming up.For others
46、old meanings and new meanings are both in existence.().Figurative Meaning of Words Common words are words connected with the ordinary things or activities necessary to everyday life.The great majority of English words are common words.They are stylistically neutral,but if we use those words figurati
47、vely,we can achieve many kinds of rhetorical effect.Here in the following well talk about some figures of speech formed by common words.1.Simile Simile is a figure of speech which makes a comparison between two unlike elements having at least one quality or characteristic in common.The comparison is
48、 purely imaginative,that is,the resemblance between the two unlike things in that one particular aspect exists only in our minds,in our “inward eye”and not in the nature of the things themselves.To make the comparison,words such as“like”or“as”are used to transfer the quality we associate with one to
49、 the other,e.g.(1).My heart is like a singing bird Whose nest is in a waterd shoot;My heart is like an apple-tree Whose boughs are bent with thick-set fruit.(2).My brain was as powerful as a dynamo,as precise as a chemists scales,as penetrating as a scapel.(3).as black as jet;as busy as bees;as clea
50、r as crystal;as cold as ice;as white as snow;as blue as the sky;as deaf as stone;as easy as ABC as firm as a rock;as strong as a horse;as free as the air;as poor as a church mouse;as proud as a peacock;as rich as a Jew;2.Metaphor Metaphor,like Simile,also makes a comparison between two unlike elemen
