1、二、加工水平说o Craik&Lockhart（1972）最早提出，针对）最早提出，针对两种记忆说难以解决的问题：短时记忆两种记忆说难以解决的问题：短时记忆容量有限的性质没有实质的说明；两种容量有限的性质没有实质的说明；两种记忆的编码方式存在不同，难以解释；记忆的编码方式存在不同，难以解释；两种记忆都存在遗忘，它们的特征应该不两种记忆都存在遗忘，它们的特征应该不同，难以解释。同，难以解释。o 理论假设：理论假设：记忆不存在阶段性，保持时间记忆不存在阶段性，保持时间的长短取决于加工的深度。的长短取决于加工的深度。o Craik and Lockhart(1972)first proposed t
2、hat the problem with the two stage memory model is difficult to be resolved:(1)the limited nature of the short-term memory capacity is not specified;(2)two stage memory encoding are different and difficult to explain;(3)if two stage memory is forgotten and their characteristics should be different,t
3、herefore,difficult to explain.o Theoretical hypothesis:memory storage does not exist,the length of retaining time depends on the depth of processing.o 1、记忆保持的时间长短是加工深度的直接函数，、记忆保持的时间长短是加工深度的直接函数，记忆痕迹是信息加工的副产品。记忆痕迹是信息加工的副产品。o 不同的加工深度：表浅的感觉分析（不同的加工深度：表浅的感觉分析（S的物理的物理特征）特征）较深的、较复杂的、抽象和语较深的、较复杂的、抽象和语义的分析（
4、模式识别和意义的提取）义的分析（模式识别和意义的提取）o 深度越深，则有愈多的人认知加工和语义加工深度越深，则有愈多的人认知加工和语义加工o 2、影响加工深度的因素很多，例如刺激的性质、影响加工深度的因素很多，例如刺激的性质、可用于加工的时间、加工的任务等。可用于加工的时间、加工的任务等。o 3、“侧向扩散侧向扩散”的观点：无先后，不一定由浅的观点：无先后，不一定由浅到深到深基本观点oMemory retention is a direct function of the time taken for depth processing,memory trace is a byproduct o
5、f information processing.oDifferent depth processing:(1)the feeling of superficial analysis(physical characteristics of Stimulus)(2)a deeper,more complex,abstract and semantic analysis(pattern recognition and the meaning extraction)oThe deeper the depth,the more there is cognitive processing and sem
6、antic processing oMany factors affect the depth of processing,such as the nature of the stimulus,processing time for a task,the process,etc.o“Lateral Diffusion point of view:no order,not necessarily from shallow to deep 1、Craik等（等（1975）三种）三种加工水平的实验加工水平的实验P1302、Bower&Karlin（1974）用照片得到类似的结用照片得到类似的结果果P
7、130 两种加工水平：性别、两种加工水平：性别、人格或外表人格或外表3、Rogers等（等（1977）在）在三个水平上加一个三个水平上加一个“自我参照自我参照”，证明，证明自我参照的加工水平自我参照的加工水平最深。最深。oCraik et al.(1975)three level of processing experiment P130 oBower&Karlin(1974)use pictures to get similar results P130 Two Level Of Processing:Gender,Personality or Appearance oRogers et a
8、l.(1977)added another level to three levels self-reference,and proved that self-reference has the deepest level of processing.o Craik等等认为，记忆是认为，记忆是知觉的副产品，而知知觉的副产品，而知觉是包含不同的阶段觉是包含不同的阶段或水平的加工过程。或水平的加工过程。n例如，当一个人理解例如，当一个人理解yAchtyAcht这样的一个词时，这样的一个词时，要将注意力集中于要将注意力集中于3 3种种不同认知不同认知“水平水平”的特的特征上：征上：o Craik e
9、t al.believed that memory is a byproduct of perception,and perception contains different stages or levels of processing.o For example,when a person understands a word such as yAcht,he needs to concentrate on three different“levels”of knowledge features:o 第一层水平是外部的表面特征第一层水平是外部的表面特征：这个词有：这个词有5 5个字母，个字
10、母，其中一个是元音字母，它是以大写字母写出的，等其中一个是元音字母，它是以大写字母写出的，等等。这是等。这是字形水平的加工字形水平的加工；o 第二层水平是将单词的书面特征转化为有听觉参与第二层水平是将单词的书面特征转化为有听觉参与的语音编码的语音编码。我们在判断。我们在判断yachtyacht与与hothot是否押韵的时是否押韵的时候，就必须依赖于语音编码。这是候，就必须依赖于语音编码。这是语音水平的加工语音水平的加工。o 第三层水平是词义的确定第三层水平是词义的确定。即知道。即知道yachtyacht的意义是什的意义是什么。这是么。这是语义水平的加工语义水平的加工。o The first l
11、evel is external layer of surface features:this word has five letters,one of which is a vowel letter,it is written in the capital letter,and so on.This is the symbolic level processing.o The second level is characterized by the speech encoding of the written word:We need to determine whether yAcht r
12、hymes with hot,that is we must rely on speech coding.This is a speech levels of processing.o The third level is the determination of the meaning:That is to know what is the meaning of yAcht.This is the semantic level of processing.o Clay Clay 和和 Lockhart(1972)Lockhart(1972)认为觉认为觉察单词或任何别的事物察单词或任何别的事物
13、的过程都包含着从表面的过程都包含着从表面(认知系统的表层水平认知系统的表层水平)到意义到意义(认知系统的深认知系统的深层水平层水平)的加工阶段。的加工阶段。o 他们进一步指出，随之他们进一步指出，随之而至的记忆与最初的知而至的记忆与最初的知觉加工深度直接相关：觉加工深度直接相关：对事物最初知觉的加工对事物最初知觉的加工水平越深，记忆就越好。水平越深，记忆就越好。oClay and Lockhart(1972)argued that words perception or any other things is included with the process of the surface(s
14、urface level of cognition system)towards the meaning(the processing stage of the deeper level of the cognitive system).oThey further pointed out that the initial perceptual process of memory and deeper processing are directly related:the more the initial perception of things towards the deeper level
15、 of processing,the more better the memory.o 克雷克和塔尔文克雷克和塔尔文 (1975(1975）向本科生被试呈现词语，向本科生被试呈现词语，并要求被试就每一个词回并要求被试就每一个词回答一些问题。对这些问题答一些问题。对这些问题的思考可以引起对这些词的思考可以引起对这些词的不同水平的加工。的不同水平的加工。n例如，被试看见单词例如，被试看见单词bearbear呈呈现在屏幕上，并被问以下三现在屏幕上，并被问以下三个问题中的一个：个问题中的一个：o它是由大写字母写出的吗它是由大写字母写出的吗?o它与它与chair chair 押韵吗押韵吗?o它是一只动物
16、吗它是一只动物吗?o Craig and Tulvig(1975)shown words to the undergraduate subjects,and asked the participants to answer some questions regarding every word.Attention to these problems can cause the different levels of processing of these words.For example,when the participants saw the word bear appearing on
17、 the screen,they were asked one of the following three questions:o It is composed of uppercase letters?o Does it rhyme with chair?o It is an animal?o 回答第一个问题时，只回答第一个问题时，只需核查词的表面需核查词的表面(字形的字形的)特征；回答第二个问题特征；回答第二个问题时，必须考虑词的声音时，必须考虑词的声音(或它的音素编码或它的音素编码)；回；回答第三个问题时，必须答第三个问题时，必须理解词的含义或从语义理解词的含义或从语义上进行加工。上进
18、行加工。o 研究者假设：研究者假设：加工水平加工水平深的词比那些加工水平深的词比那些加工水平浅的词记忆得更好浅的词记忆得更好(语义语义的语音的字形的的语音的字形的)。oAnswering the first question,just needs to check word surface(shape)characteristic;To answer the second question,one must consider the word sound(or its phoneme code);To answer the third question,one must understand
19、the word meaning or process it semantically.oResearchers hypothesized that deep level of processing the word memory is better than those of the shallow level of processing word memory(semantics phonetics shape).o 研究者向被试呈现研究者向被试呈现6060个词，并要求被试就个词，并要求被试就每一个词回答前面每一个词回答前面3 3个个问题中的一个。然后问题中的一个。然后将这将这6060个看
20、过的词与个看过的词与120120个没有看过的词混个没有看过的词混杂在一起。要被试选杂在一起。要被试选出刚才看过的出刚才看过的6060个单个单词。猜对的几率是词。猜对的几率是3333。oResearchers presented 60 words to the participants,and participants were required to answer one of the three questions on every word.Then these 60 read words were mixed with another 120 unseen words.The task
21、for participants was to choose 60 words that they saw earlier.The probability to guess correctly is 33%.o 实验情景分析：实验情景分析：n实验中的被试全都是大学生；实验中的被试全都是大学生；n材料是单个的词和针对每个词提出的问题；材料是单个的词和针对每个词提出的问题；n测试为再认测验，被试被迫在固定数量的单词中加以选测试为再认测验，被试被迫在固定数量的单词中加以选择择 (所以他们不得不猜测所以他们不得不猜测)；n加工水平的操作是以一种特殊的形式进行的。加工水平的操作是以一种特殊的形式进行的。
22、o 前面实验结果的获得，上述特征哪些是关键前面实验结果的获得，上述特征哪些是关键的，抑或它们全部都是关键的的，抑或它们全部都是关键的?oThe experimental scenario analysis:Experimental subjects were all college students;Material is single word and aimed at questions raised on each word;Measurement for the recognition tests,subjects were forced to choose between a fix
23、ed number of words(so they have to guess);The level of processing operations are carried out a special form.Experimental results acquired from the test,what are the key characteristics in the aforementioned,or are they all the important?o 詹金斯詹金斯(1979)(1979)提出了提出了一个考察结果普遍性一个考察结果普遍性问题的基本模型，如问题的基本模型，如下
24、图所示，这是一种下图所示，这是一种记忆实验的四面体模记忆实验的四面体模型。型。o Jenkins(1979)proposed a b a s i c m o d e l f o r t h e universality(generalization)problems of the experimental results,as shown in the figure below,this is a kind of overall model of memory research.Directional task/situation:instructions,policies,expectati
25、ons and context材料材料：单词、图片、段落、材料的：单词、图片、段落、材料的组织组织Materials:words,pictures,paragraphs,material organization.测验（关键的任务）测验（关键的任务）：自：自由回忆、线索回忆、再认、由回忆、线索回忆、再认、迁移迁移Measurement(critical tasks):free recall,cued recall,recognition,migration.Participants:college students,schizophrenia,chess player,childreno 在克
26、雷克和塔尔文在克雷克和塔尔文(1975)(1975)的实验中，研究的实验中，研究者感兴趣的是定向任务者感兴趣的是定向任务(引领被试以特定方引领被试以特定方式加工单词的问题式加工单词的问题)是怎祥影响被试的记忆是怎祥影响被试的记忆保持的。另外三个方面他们则不感兴趣，保持的。另外三个方面他们则不感兴趣，因此必须对这几个方面进行控制：所有被因此必须对这几个方面进行控制：所有被试均为大学生；记忆测验是再认测试；记试均为大学生；记忆测验是再认测试；记忆材料为单词。这样实验结果的普遍性就忆材料为单词。这样实验结果的普遍性就受到了限制。受到了限制。o Craig and Tulvig(1975)in the
27、ir experiment,were interested in directional task(leading the participants in a particular way of processing word problems)to see how it influences subjects retentive memory.They were not interested in other three ways,therefore,must control these aspects:all subjects are college students;Memory mea
28、surement is performed through recognition tests;Memory materials is single word.The universality of the experimental results is controlled in this manner.o 詹金斯的模型指出，任詹金斯的模型指出，任何实验结果都要放到可何实验结果都要放到可能被操作的其他潜在变能被操作的其他潜在变量的关系中加以考察。量的关系中加以考察。o 因此，有关结果普遍性因此，有关结果普遍性的问题可概括为：的问题可概括为：n如果其他控制变量被操如果其他控制变量被操作，是否可
29、获得同样的作，是否可获得同样的结果结果?n如果自变量是以另外的如果自变量是以另外的定义方式被操作的，其定义方式被操作的，其结果能被重复吗？结果能被重复吗？oJenkins model indicates that experimental results on other potential variable may be operating variables to test relationship.oTherefore,the universality problem of the results can be summarized as:oIf the other control va
30、riables are operated upon,whether the same results can be obtained?oIf the independent variable is operated in the other defining manner,can the results still be replicated?INVESTIGATING THE EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ON THE UNIVERSAL MEMORY PROCESSING LEVELo 被试被试o 材料材料o 定向任务与情景定向任务与情景o 测验测验o Participants
31、 o Materialo Directional Tasks and Situations o Measurement o 即大学生以外的被试即大学生以外的被试是否显示出加工水平是否显示出加工水平效应效应(语义加工后的语义加工后的材材 料记忆效果更好料记忆效果更好)?)?n墨菲和布朗墨菲和布朗(1975)(1975)考考察了学前儿童（年龄察了学前儿童（年龄在在5 5岁以下岁以下)nCraikCraik（1977)1977)考察了考察了老年人老年人o Whether subjects other than the college students shows the level of proce
32、ssing effect(better semantic processing of materials after memory)?o Murphy and Brown(1975)surveyed the pre-school children(under age 5)o Craik(1977),investigated the elderly peopleo 即加工水平效应在用词语以外的材料为对象即加工水平效应在用词语以外的材料为对象的研究中是否也存在呢的研究中是否也存在呢?n 史密斯和威诺格拉德史密斯和威诺格拉德(1978)(1978)以每以每8 8秒秒幅的速度幅的速度向被试呈现人的肖像
33、。要求一组判断每个人是向被试呈现人的肖像。要求一组判断每个人是否有一个大鼻子否有一个大鼻子(表面判断表面判断)，要求另一组判断，要求另一组判断每个人是否友善每个人是否友善(深层判断深层判断)，在后来的再认测，在后来的再认测验中，那些判断人脸是否友善的被试的再认成验中，那些判断人脸是否友善的被试的再认成绩要优于那些判断绩要优于那些判断 鼻子大小的被试。此结果确鼻子大小的被试。此结果确认了用肖像为材科的加工水平效应。认了用肖像为材科的加工水平效应。2,METERIALo Does the level of processing effect also exists in other objects
34、 outside the study of words material?o Smith and Winograd(1978)presented peoples portrait at a speed of every eight seconds.Required a set of judgment whether everyone has a big nose(surface judgment),asked everyone to determine whether another group is friendly(deep judgment),later in the recogniti
35、on test,those who judged whether a human face friendly recognition results were better than those who judged the size of the nose.This result confirmed the level of processing effects with portraits material.o 墨菲和布朗墨菲和布朗(1975)(1975)使使用图画以学前儿童为用图画以学前儿童为被试在不同的加工水被试在不同的加工水平上进行测试，也显平上进行测试，也显示出和重复了加工水示出和
36、重复了加工水平的基本效应。平的基本效应。o Murphy and brown(1975)used pictures for pre-school children tested on a different level of processing,also shows and repeats the basic effect of level of processing.o 变量的类别涉及实验变量的类别涉及实验的许多方面。它包括的许多方面。它包括给被试的指导语、实给被试的指导语、实验任务的持定解释、验任务的持定解释、被试使用的策略、自被试使用的策略、自变量的操作是组内变量的操作是组内（每一个被
37、试接受每（每一个被试接受每一种实验一种实验)还是组间还是组间的的(每一个被试只接每一个被试只接受一种实验处理受一种实验处理)，等等。等等。oVariable categories involves many aspects of the experiment.Includes instructions for the subjects,explanation of the experimental tasks,policies,strategy used by the participants,the operation of the independent variable is withi
38、n the group(each participant receives each experimental treatment)or between groups(each participant only receives an experimental treatment),and so on.o 克雷克和塔尔文克雷克和塔尔文(1975)(1975)在偶然和有意学习的在偶然和有意学习的条件下对被试进行测条件下对被试进行测试，其结果表明加工试，其结果表明加工水平效应在两种条件水平效应在两种条件下均存在。下均存在。o Craig and Tulvig(1975)under the cond
39、ition of accidental and intentional learning tested the subjects,the results show that the level of processing effects exist in two conditions.o 加工水平效应在两种加工水平效应在两种测试类型（自由回忆测试类型（自由回忆或再认）中都多次出或再认）中都多次出现。现。o 但研究者发现，有些但研究者发现，有些另外类型的测试中不另外类型的测试中不存在加工水平效应或存在加工水平效应或者甚至是相反的效应。者甚至是相反的效应。o The level of proces
40、sing effect in two measurement types(free recall and recognition)have appeared many times.o But the researchers found that there are some other types of measurement,where there is no level of processing effect or even the opposite effect.o 莫里斯莫里斯(1977)(1977)及其同事及其同事用两组大学生为被试。用两组大学生为被试。要求一组大学生就单词要求一组
41、大学生就单词进行判断。对单词进行判断。对单词(比比方，方，EAGLE)EAGLE)的提问被设的提问被设计为诱发语音的加工水计为诱发语音的加工水平平(“_与与legallegal押韵押韵吗吗?”)或语义的加工水或语义的加工水平平(“_是一只大鸟是一只大鸟吗吗?”)。被试就一半的。被试就一半的单词回答语音方面的问单词回答语音方面的问题，另一半则回答语义题，另一半则回答语义的问题。的问题。oMorris(1977)and his colleagues used two groups of college students as the subjects.Subjects were required
42、to judge a set of words.For words(for example,the EAGLE)were designed to induce phonetic(voice)processing level(_ and legal rhyme?)or the semantic level of processing(_ is a big bird?).Half of the subjects were investigated about the voice problem of the word,the other half to answer about the seman
43、tic problem.o 给第二组被试采用不同的测试方式，即给第二组被试采用不同的测试方式，即韵律韵律再认测试再认测试。在这种测试中，被试的任务是检。在这种测试中，被试的任务是检测一测一 个音节表并挑选出与早先所学过的单词个音节表并挑选出与早先所学过的单词押韵的单词。例如，如果押韵的单词。例如，如果beaglebeagle在测试词表在测试词表中，他们就要将它挑选出来因为它与所学中，他们就要将它挑选出来因为它与所学过的过的 eagleeagle押韵押韵(在测试词表中的单词不在学在测试词表中的单词不在学习音节表中出现，它们只和学习音节表中的习音节表中出现，它们只和学习音节表中的单词押韵）。单词押
44、韵）。o To a second set of participants with different test ways,namely the rhythm recognition test.In this test,the test task was to detect a syllable and sort out the rhyming words with earlier learned words.For example,if“beagle”in the test word in the table,they will pick it out.Because it rhymes w
45、ith the earlier learned word“eagle”(the words in the vocabulary list test,do not appear in the syllable list.They only learn the syllable words that rhyme in the table).o 该结果说明，记忆的加工层次水平的实验结果只该结果说明，记忆的加工层次水平的实验结果只能推论运用自由回忆或再认进行测试的实验结果，能推论运用自由回忆或再认进行测试的实验结果，而不能推论到用其他测试方法（如而不能推论到用其他测试方法（如韵律再认测试）韵律再认测试
46、）的实验中。的实验中。o 依据这一实验结果，莫里斯与其合作者依据这一实验结果，莫里斯与其合作者(1977)(1977)提提出了一种新的理论出了一种新的理论传输适当性加工理论传输适当性加工理论，修改完善了记忆的加工层次水平理论，使得人们修改完善了记忆的加工层次水平理论，使得人们对记忆本质的认识更加深入。对记忆本质的认识更加深入。o The results indicate that,the memory processing and categorizing level experiment results can only be reasoned with the free recall or
47、 recognition experimental results of the test,but the test can not concluded with other test methods(such as rhythm recognition test experiment).o Based on these results,Morris and his colleagues(1977)proposed a new theory-transfer appropriate processing theory,revised and improved the processing of
48、 memory hierarchy theory,helps people make in-depth understanding of the nature of memory.o 简单复述和精细复述简单复述和精细复述o 实验：实验：P132o 变量：插入的单词数变量：插入的单词数量或复述次数。量或复述次数。o 说明信息并不能通过说明信息并不能通过机械的复述而转入长机械的复述而转入长时记忆。时记忆。o Simple rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal o Experiment:P132 o Variables:the number of words ins
49、erted or repeated.o Information cannot be mechanically repeated and transferred into long-term memory.加工的一致性o 加工水平、项目和上下文的加工一致性加工水平、项目和上下文的加工一致性o 上下文愈丰富，对于项目的加工就愈精细，上下文愈丰富，对于项目的加工就愈精细，也愈不容易与其他项目混淆。如果没有这样也愈不容易与其他项目混淆。如果没有这样的上下文，即使涉及到项目的意义，记忆效的上下文，即使涉及到项目的意义，记忆效果也不会提高。他们进一步提出了加工的精果也不会提高。他们进一步提出了加工的精细性
50、和区分性的概念。这些看法都有待于深细性和区分性的概念。这些看法都有待于深入研究。它们对加工水平说确实具有意义。入研究。它们对加工水平说确实具有意义。o Processing level,the processing consistency of the project and context.o The more rich the context,the more the sophisticated processing of the project,also wont be easily confused with other projects.Wihtout such a context,
