1、BiochemistryPart IIXianghui Yu National Engineering laboratory for AIDS Vcontents 代谢总论和生物能学代谢总论和生物能学(metabolism and Bioenergetics)糖酵解(糖酵解(Glycolysis)柠檬酸循环柠檬酸循环(The Citric Acid Cycle)糖代谢的其他途径(糖代谢的其他途径(Additional pathways in Carbohydrate Metabolism)电子传递与氧化磷酸化(电子传递与氧化磷酸化(Electron transport and Oxidativ
2、e Phosphorylation)蛋白质代谢蛋白质代谢(Amino Acid Metabolism)脂类代谢脂类代谢(Lipid Metabolism)核酸结构和性质核酸结构和性质(Structure and properties of nucleic acids)核酸代谢核酸代谢(Nucleotide Metabolism)10.1 metabolism is the Sum of Cellular ReactionsMetabolism is the entire network of chemical reactions carried out by living cells.新陈代谢
3、新陈代谢(metabolism)是生命最基本的特征之一,泛指是生命最基本的特征之一,泛指生物与周围环境进行生物与周围环境进行物质交换、能量交换和信息交换物质交换、能量交换和信息交换的过的过程。生物一方面不断地从周围环境中摄取能量和物质,通程。生物一方面不断地从周围环境中摄取能量和物质,通过一系列生物反应转变成自身组织成分,即所谓同化作用过一系列生物反应转变成自身组织成分,即所谓同化作用(assimilation);另一方面,将原有的组成成份经过一系);另一方面,将原有的组成成份经过一系列的生化反应,分解为简单成分重新利用或排出体外,即列的生化反应,分解为简单成分重新利用或排出体外,即所谓异化作
4、用(所谓异化作用(dissimilation),),通过上述过程不断地进行通过上述过程不断地进行自我更新。自我更新。合成代谢与分解代谢合成代谢与分解代谢合成代谢合成代谢 (anabolic reactions):synthesize the molecules needed for cell maintaince,growth and reproduction.生物体内由小分子物质转化成大分子物质的过程,属同化生物体内由小分子物质转化成大分子物质的过程,属同化作用的范畴作用的范畴。分解代谢分解代谢 (catabolic reactions):degrade molecules to liber
5、ate smaller molecules and energy.生物体内由大分子物质转变成小分子物质的过程,属异化生物体内由大分子物质转变成小分子物质的过程,属异化作用的范畴。作用的范畴。新陈代谢的概念及内涵新陈代谢的概念及内涵 小分子小分子 大分子大分子合成代谢合成代谢(同化作用)(同化作用)需要能量需要能量 释放能量释放能量分解代谢分解代谢(异化作用)(异化作用)大分子大分子 小分子小分子物物质质代代谢谢能能量量代代谢谢新新陈陈代代谢谢信信息息交交换换 Birds,beasts,plants,and soil microorganisms share with humans the sa
6、me basic structural units(cells)and the same kinds of macromolecules(DNA,RNA,proteins)made up of the same kinds of monomeric subunits(nucleotides,amino acids).They utilize the same pathways for synthesis of cellular components,share the same genetic code,and derive from the same evolutionary ancesto
7、rs.Organisms change their inherited life strategies to survive in new circumstances.The result of eons of evolution is an enormous diversity of life forms,superficially very different but fundamentally related through their shared ancestry.Basic biochemistry:The unit of all life is the cell.Single-c
8、elled organisms:Bacteria and protozoa Multi-celled organisms:All plants and animalsHierarchy of cellular life:Cells-Tissues-Organs-Organisms-PopulationsSmall molecules of lifeWhat are the elements of living molecules?CHONPS biogenic elements:carbon,hydrogen,oxygen,nitrogen,phosphorus,sulfur Compose
9、99 percent of the organic matter in living cells.HydrocarbonsHCOctane=C8H18 (Lipids)CarbohydratesCHOGlucose=C6H12O6 (Sugars)Amino acids CHON(S)Glycine=C2H5O2N (Proteins)Nucleotides CHONP AMP=C10H14N5O7P (DNA,RNA)The Four Molecules of LifeWhat is the Human Genome Project?-U.S.govt.project coordinated
10、 by the Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health,launched in 1986 by Charles DeLisi.Definition:GENOME the whole hereditary information of an organism that is encoded in the DNA.-Aims of the project:-to identify the approximate 100,000 genes in the human DNA.-determine the sequences
11、 of the 3 billion bases that make up human DNA.-store this information in databases.-develop tools for data analysis.-address the ethical,legal,and social issues that arise from genome research.Whose genome is being sequenced?-the first reference genome is a composite genome from several different p
12、eople.-generated from 10-20 primary samples taken from numerous anonymous donors across racial and ethnic groups.从左至右依次为从左至右依次为Venter、Clinton、Collins2000年6月26日,伟大的时刻终于来临,美国总统克林顿等六国领导人共同宣布人类基因组计划的草图完成。How is each area benefited specifically by the Human Genome Project?-Improvements in medicine:improv
13、ed diagnosis of disease.-Microbial research:new energy sources,bio fuels.-DNA forensics:identifying potential suspects at a crime scene.-Agriculture:more nutritious produce.-Evolution and human migration:study migration of different population groups based on female genetic inheritance.-Risk assessm
14、ent:reduce the likelihood of heritable mutations.What are the implications of the Human Genome Project specifically to each of these areas?Some questions to consider:-Fairness and privacy:who should have access to your genetic information?-Psychological stigmatization:how does knowing your predispos
15、ition to disease affect an individual?-Genetic testing:should screening be done when there is no treatment available?Some other issues:-Reproductive issues:use of genetic information in decision making.-Clinical issues:implementation of standards and quality control measures in testing procedures.E.
16、coli has about 900 genes that encode metabolic enzymes used in intermediary metabolism and has about 130 different pathways.These genes accounts for 21%of the genes in the genome.Mycobacterium tuberculosis has about 250 enzymes involved in fatty acid metabolism-five times as many as E.coli.Organisms
17、 demonstrate the following common themes Organisms or cells maintain specific internal concentrations of inorganic ions,metabolites,and enzymes.Organisms extract energy from external sources to drive energy-consuming reactions.The metabolic pathways in each organism are specified by the genes it con
18、tains in its genome.Organisms and cells interact with their environments.The cells of organisms are not static assemblies of molecules.Many cell components are continually synthesized and degraded.Metabolic pathways are sequences of reactions Within each of the four areas of metabolism,we recognize
19、distinct sequences of metabolic reactions,called pathway.A pathway is the biological equivalent of a synthetic or degradative scheme in organic chemistry.虽然新陈代谢包括数以千计的不同酶催化的反应,但仍可以从错综复杂的代谢网络中总结归纳成一些具有共同规律一些具有共同规律的途径,并将这些途径称为主要代谢途径。的途径,并将这些途径称为主要代谢途径。这些主要代谢途径在千差万别的生物界具有相当的普遍性。Individual metabolic pat
20、hways can take different forms.A linear metabolic pathway is a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions in which the product of one reaction is the substrate for the next reaction.A cyclic metabolic pathway is also a sequence of enzyme-catalyzed steps,but the sequence forms a closed loop,so the intermed
21、iates are regenerated.In a spiral metabolic pathway,the same set of enzymes is used repeatedly.Metabolism proceeds by discrete steps A metabolic pathway has many steps That begin with a specific molecule and end with a product That are each catalyzed by a specific enzymeEnzyme 1Enzyme 2Enzyme 3ABCDR
22、eaction 1Reaction 2Reaction 3StartingmoleculeProduct One reason for multiple steps is the limitied reaction specificity of enzymes.Another reason for multiple steps in metabolic pathways is to control energy input and output.Finally,multiple steps provide opportunities to establish control points.Bu
23、rning vs.Metabolism生物体内的氧化过程是缓慢地,逐步将能量释放出来,其生物体内的氧化过程是缓慢地,逐步将能量释放出来,其中大部分能量转移到一些特殊的化合物中。中大部分能量转移到一些特殊的化合物中。氧化作用所放出的能量与氧化途径无关,只要最后产物相氧化作用所放出的能量与氧化途径无关,只要最后产物相同,释放出的总能量就相同。同,释放出的总能量就相同。10.2 metabolic pathways are regulated The flow of material through a metabolic pathway,or flux,depends not only on th
24、e supply of substrates and the removal of products but also on the activities of the enzymes that catalyze individual reactions.Substrate Specificity of Enzymes The substrateIs the reactant an enzyme acts on The enzymeBinds to its substrate,forming an enzyme-substrate complex The active siteIs the r
25、egion on the enzyme where the substrate bindsSubstateActive siteEnzyme(a)The catalytic cycle of an enzymeSubstratesProductsEnzymeEnzyme-substratecomplex 1 Substrates enter active site;enzymechanges shape so its active siteembraces the substrates(induced fit).2 Substrates held inactive site by weakin
26、teractions,such ashydrogen bonds andionic bonds.3 Active site(and R groups ofits amino acids)can lower EAand speed up a reaction by acting as a template for substrate orientation,stressing the substrates and stabilizing the transition state,providing a favorable microenvironment,participating direct
27、ly in the catalytic reaction.4 Substrates are Converted intoProducts.5 Products areReleased.6 Active siteIs available fortwo new substrateMole.Figure 8.17 In feedback inhibitionThe end product of a metabolic pathway shuts down the pathway through inhibition of an early step,usually the first committ
28、ed step.Feed-forward activation occurs when a metabolic produced early activates an enzyme that catalyzes a reaction further down the pathway.Active siteavailableIsoleucineused up bycellFeedbackinhibitionIsoleucine binds to allosteric siteActive site of enzyme 1 no longer binds threonine;pathway is
29、switched offInitial substrate(threonine)Threoninein active siteEnzyme 1(threoninedeaminase)Intermediate AIntermediate BIntermediate CIntermediate DEnzyme 2Enzyme 3Enzyme 4Enzyme 5End product(isoleucine)Figure 8.21新陈代谢的调节新陈代谢的调节 生物机体的新陈代谢是一个完整的整体,机体代谢的协调配合,关键在于它存在有精密的调节机制。代谢的调节使生物机体能适应其内、外复杂的变化环境,从而得
30、以生存。新陈代谢的调节主要是:新陈代谢的调节主要是:1)靠酶数量和活性的调节 2)细胞中有许多由膜分割的部位,特定的代谢途径在特定的细胞部位进行。3)物质需要在细胞不同的部位间运输,有时还需要在细胞间或整个机体内运输。物质运输的方向、量及速度也影响代谢。10.3 major pathways in cellsRoles of ATP and NADPH(NADH)in MetabolismATPATP是能量代谢的中心物质是能量代谢的中心物质 生物体直接利用的能量物质主要是ATPATP,在分解代谢中,释放出的能量主要用于合成ATPATP,在需要提供能量的反应或其它生命活动中,主要是由ATPATP
31、水解来提供能量的,所以ATP是能量代谢的中心物质。ATPATP不是一种能量贮存物质,而是一种传递能量的分子,因为在一般情况下,ATPATP分子合成后,在1分钟之内就被利用。辅酶辅酶和辅酶和辅酶的递能作用的递能作用 由营养物质的分解代谢释放出的化学能,除了通过合成ATP的途径捕获外,还有另外一种途径,就是以氢原子和电子的形式将自由能转移给生物合成的需能反应。这种具有高能的氢原子是由脱氢反应形成的。脱氢反应产生的氢原子和电子可由辅酶或辅酶接受,形成还原型辅酶还原型辅酶。当这些辅酶被氧化时,能量又被释放出来。辅酶的作用:参与电子的传递、基团的转移电子的传递、基团的转移等,决定了酶所催化反应的性质。维
32、生素维生素B B3 3(也称维生素(也称维生素pppp、或烟酰胺、或烟酰胺 nicotinamide)(1 1)结构结构 维生素维生素B B5 5是吡啶的衍生物是吡啶的衍生物 NCOOH1234 吡啶吡啶-3-3-羧酸羧酸 nicotinic acid nicotinic acid(烟酸)(烟酸)NCNH2O1234 吡啶吡啶-3-3-酰胺酰胺 Nicotinamide Nicotinamide(烟酰胺)(烟酰胺)(2 2)功能)功能 B B5 5是是NADNAD和和NADPNADP的组成成分,的组成成分,NADNAD和和NADPNADP是许是许多脱氢酶的辅酶,参与递氢。多脱氢酶的辅酶,参与递
33、氢。NAD+/NADH,烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸,烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸(氧化(氧化/还原)还原)NADP+/NADPH,烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸磷酸,烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸磷酸(氧化(氧化/还原)。还原)。辅酶辅酶A A在能量代谢中的作用在能量代谢中的作用 乙酰乙酰CoACoA中有一个高能的硫酯键,这也可中有一个高能的硫酯键,这也可以看成是酰基的一种活化形式。以看成是酰基的一种活化形式。ATPATP的酸酐键的酸酐键水解时释放出水解时释放出30.54 kJ/mol30.54 kJ/mol的自由能,而乙的自由能,而乙酰酰CoACoA的硫酯键水解时释放出的硫酯键水解时释放出31.38 kJ/mol31.38
34、kJ/mol的的自由能。自由能。B B5 5是是CoACoA的组成成分,的组成成分,CoACoA是是生物体内转酰基酶的辅酶生物体内转酰基酶的辅酶(主要作为转乙酰基酶的辅(主要作为转乙酰基酶的辅酶),参与转酰基作用。酶),参与转酰基作用。10.4 Compartmentation and interorgan metabolism新陈代谢的功能新陈代谢的功能代谢的功能概括为5个方面:1.从周围环境中获得营养物质。2.将外界引入的营养物质转变为自身需要的结构元件,即大分子的组成前体。3.将结构元件装配成自身的大分子4.合成或降解执行生物体特殊功能所需的生物分子。5.提供生命活动所需的一切能量。Pr
35、operties of Metabolic Pathways Irreversible(overall):reversibility of individual steps Separate Anabolic and Catabolic Pathways First Committed(Exergonic)Step:others close to equilibrium Regulation(usually first committed step):often rate-limitingFeatures of Metabolic PathwaysA B C D E(1)Sequences a
36、nd Energetics(2)Enzymes and Mechanisms(3)Control Mechanisms(Regulation)(4)Compartmentation生物能学生物能学 Thermodynamics and Metabolism一、有关热力学的一些基本概念一、有关热力学的一些基本概念二、化学反应中自由能的变化和意义二、化学反应中自由能的变化和意义三、高能磷酸化合物三、高能磷酸化合物能量代谢能量代谢任何物质的变化都伴随着能量的变化,生物任何物质的变化都伴随着能量的变化,生物体内能量的变化过程称为能量代谢。能量代谢体内能量的变化过程称为能量代谢。能量代谢与物质代谢同时存
37、在,不存在无物质代谢的能与物质代谢同时存在,不存在无物质代谢的能量代谢,也不存在无能量代谢的物质代谢。量代谢,也不存在无能量代谢的物质代谢。Kinetic energy Is the energy associated with motion Potential energy Is stored in the location of matter Includes chemical energy stored in molecular structure一、有关热力学的一些基本概念一、有关热力学的一些基本概念The Laws of Energy Transformation Thermodyn
38、amics Is the study of energy transformationsThe First Law of Thermodynamics According to the first law of thermodynamics Energy can be transferred and transformed Energy cannot be created or destroyed 热力学第一定律热力学第一定律 能量守恒定律:能量守恒定律:热力学第一定律是对能量守恒和转换定律的一种表述方式。热力学第一定律指出,热能可以从一个物体传递给另一个物体,也可以与机械能或其他能量相互转换
39、,在传递和转换过程中,能量的总值不变。D DU=Q-W DU:一个体系的内能变化,Q:体系变化吸收的热量 W:代表体系所做的功 内能(internal energy):指体系内部质点能量的总合,用U表示。Energy can be converted From one form to anotherOn the platform,a diverhas more potential energy.Diving converts potentialenergy to kinetic energy.Climbing up converts kineticenergy of muscle moveme
40、nt to potential energy.In the water,a diver has less potential energy.The Second Law of Thermodynamics According to the second law of thermodynamicsSpontaneous changes that do not require outside energy increase the entropy,or disorder,of the universeFigure 8.3 For example,disorder is added to the c
41、heetahs surroundings in the form of heat and the small molecules that are the by-products of metabolism.Heatco2H2O+热力学第二定律:热力学第二定律:热的传导只能由高温物体传至低温物体。热的自发地逆向传导是不可能的。这表明:热力学体系的运动有一定的方向性,即自高温流向低温。熵(entropy):代表体系能量分散程度的状态函数,用S表示。焓是一个热力学系统中的能量参数。由字母H表示。指内能和体积的变化。二、二、化学反应中自由能的变化和意义化学反应中自由能的变化和意义 (Free-Ene
42、rgy Change)1、化学反应的自由能变化的基本公式化学反应的自由能变化的基本公式 =H-TS2 2、化学反应自由能变化与平衡常数的关系、化学反应自由能变化与平衡常数的关系3 3、偶联化学反应、偶联化学反应GG变化的可加性变化的可加性4 4、能量学用于生物化学反应中的一些规定、能量学用于生物化学反应中的一些规定 The free-energy change of a reaction tells us whether the reaction occurs spontaneouslyFree-Energy Change,D DG A living systems free energy I
43、s energy that can do work under cellular conditions The change in free energy,G during a biological process Is related directly to the enthalpy change(H)and the change in entropyG=H TSFree Energy,Stability,and Equilibrium Organisms live at the expense of free energy During a spontaneous change Free
44、energy decreases and the stability of a system increasesFree Energy&Spontaneity自由能(自由能(free energyfree energy)物理意义物理意义:*(体系中能对环境作功的能量体系中能对环境作功的能量)自由能的变化能预示某一过程能否自发进行,即:G0,反应不能自发进行 G=0,反应处于平衡状态。自由能的概念对于研究生物化学过程的力能学具有很重要的自由能的概念对于研究生物化学过程的力能学具有很重要的意义,生物体用于作功的能量正是体内化学反应释放的自由能意义,生物体用于作功的能量正是体内化学反应释放的自由能,
45、生物氧化释放的能量也正是为有机体利用的自由能。它不仅,生物氧化释放的能量也正是为有机体利用的自由能。它不仅可以用来判断机体内某一过程能否自发进行,而且还可以利用可以用来判断机体内某一过程能否自发进行,而且还可以利用自由能这个函数来计算反应的其它有用参数自由能这个函数来计算反应的其它有用参数。化学反应中的标准自由能变化化学反应中的标准自由能变化 在化学反应中,反应物和产物各自都有特定的自由能。产物自由能的总和与反应物自由能的总和之差,就是该反产物自由能的总和与反应物自由能的总和之差,就是该反应的自由能变化。应的自由能变化。计算标准自由能变化时的标准条件计算标准自由能变化时的标准条件 标准条件指的
46、是,反应的温度为标准条件指的是,反应的温度为2525,大气压为,大气压为101,325 Pa101,325 Pa(1atm1atm),反应物和产物的浓度都是),反应物和产物的浓度都是1mol/L1mol/L。标准自由能变化的符号用G0表示。对于生物化学反应,标准状况还规定反应进行的环境为pH=7,这时的标准自由能变化用G0表示。标准自由能变化的计算公式 假设有如下的一个化学反应式:假设有如下的一个化学反应式:aA+bB cC+dDaA+bB cC+dD在恒温和恒压下,这一反应的自由能变化公式是:在恒温和恒压下,这一反应的自由能变化公式是:式中式中GG0 0是该反应的标准自由能变化,是该反应的标
47、准自由能变化,R R是气体常数,是气体常数,T T是绝对温度,是绝对温度,AA、BB、CC、DD代表代表4 4种物质的摩尔种物质的摩尔浓度,严格地应为活度。浓度,严格地应为活度。badcBADCRTGGln0DD 从以上的公式可以看出,一个化学反应自由能的变化值G,由两部分决定,一部分是不变因素,即由反应本一部分是不变因素,即由反应本身的性质所决定;另一部分是可变因素,即各物质的浓度、身的性质所决定;另一部分是可变因素,即各物质的浓度、反应的化学当量以及反应的温度。反应的化学当量以及反应的温度。一些计算问题:一些计算问题:badcBADCRTGGln0DDbadceqBADCKeqKRTGln
48、0DR1.98 x10-3kcal/mol.K 8.31 x 10-3 kJ/mol.KT=298 K计算磷酸葡萄糖异构酶反应的自由能变化计算磷酸葡萄糖异构酶反应的自由能变化达平衡时达平衡时 =Keq=19解:解:G=-RTlnKeq =8.314 10-3 311 ln19 =-7.6KJ.mol-1 反应反应G-1-PG-1-PG-6-PG-6-P在在38380 0C C达到平衡时,达到平衡时,G-1-PG-1-P占占5%5%,G-6-PG-6-P占占95%95%,求,求 G G0 0。如果反应未达到平衡,设。如果反应未达到平衡,设G-1-P=G-1-P=0.01mol.L0.01mol.
49、L,G-6-P=0.001mol.LG-6-P=0.001mol.L,求反应的求反应的 G G 是多少?是多少?G=G+RTlnQc(Qc-浓度商浓度商)=-7.6+8.314 10-3 311 ln0.1 =-13.6KJ.MOL-1未达平衡时未达平衡时 =Qc=0.1 A B G=+20.92 KJ/mol B C G=-33.47 KJ/mol 则则 A C G=-12.55 KJ/mol 该规则表明一个在热力学上不利的反应,可以与热该规则表明一个在热力学上不利的反应,可以与热力学有利的反应偶联进行,即可以被热力学有利的反应力学有利的反应偶联进行,即可以被热力学有利的反应所驱动而进行。这
50、在生物化学反应中是很多的。所驱动而进行。这在生物化学反应中是很多的。偶联化学反应标准自由能变化的偶联化学反应标准自由能变化的可加性及其意义可加性及其意义The Structure and Hydrolysis of ATP ATP(adenosine triphosphate)Is the cells energy shuttle Provides energy for cellular functionsATPATP的特点的特点 在在pH=7pH=7环境中,环境中,ATPATP分子中的三个磷酸基团完全解离成带分子中的三个磷酸基团完全解离成带4 4个个负电荷的离子形式(负电荷的离子形式(ATP