1、会计的国际化会计的国际化经济全球化和会计准则的国际趋同经济全球化和会计准则的国际趋同 n世界经济的发展早已打破国界，资本的国际化，跨国兼并和跨国上市，投资融资日趋复杂，金融工具层出不穷。n会计作为一种通用的商业语言，也处于一个动态的、不断发展的过程中，走向了会计准则的国际趋同。IASCn成立于1973年n1994年与IOSCO签订协议：制定一套核心会计准则n1998年完成核心会计准则n2001年改组 IASC IASC基金会基金会它是一个非盈利的法律实体，它是一个非盈利的法律实体，20012001年年2 2月在月在美国美国DelawareDelaware州登记成立。州登记成立。n基金会受托人由
2、22名具有不同地域及功能背景的个人组成。为了保持地区间的平衡，首任成员有6名来自北美、6名来自欧洲、6名来自亚太地区、4名来自其他地区。n n任命IASB、IFRIC和SAC。IASB 国际会计准则理事会 IFRIC 国际财务报告解释委员会 SAC 准则咨询委员会n对IASB的效率进行监控n筹集资金n审批IASB的预算n修改章程（Trustees）IASBIASB由由1414人组成，包括人组成，包括1212名专职成员和名专职成员和2 2名兼名兼职成员，职成员，1414名成员有名成员有7 7人负责联络英、美、加人负责联络英、美、加拿大、澳大利亚和新西兰、德、法、日等国家拿大、澳大利亚和新西兰、德
3、、法、日等国家准则制定机构。准则制定机构。20012001年年4 4月改组后的理事会制定的准则称为国月改组后的理事会制定的准则称为国际财务报告准则（际财务报告准则（IFRSIFRS）。）。从从2001年年12月起更名为月起更名为IFRIC，IFRIC由由12名有表决权的成员和名有表决权的成员和1名名不具表决权的主席组成，还有不具表决权的主席组成，还有2名官名官方观察员（欧洲委员会和方观察员（欧洲委员会和IOSCO）准则解释委员会（准则解释委员会（SICSIC）准则咨询委员会（SAC）2005年年10月改组后的成员为月改组后的成员为40名，其中非名，其中非洲洲2名，亚太地区名，亚太地区9名，欧洲
4、名，欧洲14名，拉丁美洲名，拉丁美洲3名，中东名，中东1名，北美名，北美4名，国际组织代表名，国际组织代表7名，名，分别来自巴塞尔银行业监管委员会、国际保险分别来自巴塞尔银行业监管委员会、国际保险监管协会、国际会计师联合会、国际货币基金监管协会、国际会计师联合会、国际货币基金组织、证券委员会国际组织、联合国贸易和发组织、证券委员会国际组织、联合国贸易和发展委员会以及世界银行。此外，还有展委员会以及世界银行。此外，还有3名观察名观察员，分别来自欧洲委员会、日本金融服务机构员，分别来自欧洲委员会、日本金融服务机构和美国证券交易委员会。和美国证券交易委员会。准则咨询委员会（SAC）SAC40名成员I
5、FRIC12名有表决权成员1名无表决权主席IASB12名专职，2名兼职IASC基金会受托人22名成员任命 报告 建议 IASC IASC基金会章程的目标基金会章程的目标IASCIASC基金会章程（基金会章程（20022002年年7 7月）的目标月）的目标：n本着公众的利益，制定一套高质量、易可理解本着公众的利益，制定一套高质量、易可理解且可实施的全球会计准则，这套准则要求财务且可实施的全球会计准则，这套准则要求财务报表和其他财务报告中的信息高质量、透明和报表和其他财务报告中的信息高质量、透明和可比，有助于世界各种资本市场的参与者和其可比，有助于世界各种资本市场的参与者和其他使用者进行经济决策；
6、他使用者进行经济决策；n促使这些准则的使用和严格运用；促使这些准则的使用和严格运用；n促使国家会计准则与国际会计准则和国际财务促使国家会计准则与国际会计准则和国际财务报告准则高质量解决方法的趋同。报告准则高质量解决方法的趋同。Convergence of accounting standards国际会计准则理事会与美国国际会计准则理事会与美国SECSEC和和FASBFASB 1996年4月美国SEC就发布了一份“公告”表明：IAS只要满足以下三条，则其与IOSCO合作制定的准则，是可以接受的。n（一）它必须包括一套核心准则（Core Standards），构成会计的全面基础；n（二）准则必须是
7、高质量的，使投资者能够在公司间和时间跨度上进行比较；n（三）准则必须进行严格解释和运用，否则就不能达到可比性和透明度。国际会计准则理事会与美国国际会计准则理事会与美国SECSEC和和FASBFASBnFASB在20世纪90年代就参加IASB非正式会议，然后成立G4+1（即美、英、加拿大、澳大利亚和新西兰，IASC作为观察员），其中FASB是积极参与者。FASB与IASB在2002年10月签订了Norwalk协议书，其中提出了趋同规划。美国财务会计准则委员会（FASB）主席认为，在2010年双方准则之间的主要差异将趋消失。国际会计准则理事会与美国国际会计准则理事会与美国SECSEC和和FASBF
8、ASBn双方成立联合议事日程委员会（Joint Agenda Committee），目的是协调讨论同一议题的日程表，每年集会两次。但是，双方的合作并不是完美的，FASB是在特定国家法律框架下工作的，IASB就不是这样，虽然双方都讲“传统的”GAAP，但方法上的差异是由长期历史形成，不容易消除的。国际会计准则理事会与美国的国际会计准则理事会与美国的SEC和和FASB FASB有颁布详细准则的传统和明确的审计指南，这就容易达到控制和消除不确定性。安然事件后，由于规范准则的滥用，就更多地着重于解释目标的准则以及如何达到目标。但是，SEC观察到以原则为导向的准则，在单独运用原则时就减少了可比性，在美国
9、诉讼环境中，许多公司和审计师不愿进入在不确定的条件下进行职业判断的领域USE OF IFRSS IS WIDESPREAD!n Used by more than 15,000 listed companies n Another 12,000 planned by 2011n Used by SEC foreign registrants without reconciliation to US GAAPnWill probably be used by US companies in a few yearsn Both SEC registrants and privateUSE OF I
10、FRSS IS WIDESPREAD!nFASB,SEC,AICPA,Big-4,and major multinationals all strongly favor use of IFRSsn What will become of the national standard setters?WHY GLOBAL STANDARDS?nEnhanced worldwide comparability for investorsnEnhanced quality of reportingnSome national GAAPs are weak or outdatednPossibly a
11、lower cost of capital for companies adopting IFRSsWHY GLOBAL STANDARDS?nReduced reporting costs nFor instance,multinational with subs applying many GAAPsnNo need to develop and maintain national standardsnFor audit firms and companies:Easier movement of auditors and accountants across bordersUSE OF
12、IFRSS BY LISTED ENTITIESnEurope(EU+EEA+Switzerland):nAll listed(about 8,000 companies)nIn consolidated financial statementsnEU:One modification(of IAS 39)nConsequently,audit report refers to IFRSs as adopted by the EUnEndorsement（EFRAG）mechanism results in time lagsnAsia-Pacific:n Nearly word-for-wo
13、rd convergence:Australia,New Zealand,Hong KongnModifications,time lags,some not adopted:Singapore,Thailand,Malaysia,Philippines,ChinanOwn standards:Japan(convergence program),Taiwann 2011 planned:India,KoreaUSE OF IFRSS BY LISTED ENTITIESnNorth America:Canada:planned 2011;USA:Permitted for foreign S
14、EC registrants since March 2008;SEC studying domestic registrantsUSE OF IFRSS BY LISTED ENTITIESnLatin America/Caribbean:IFRSs required:Brazil(2010 all listed and banks),Chile(2009-2011 phased in),and over a dozen smaller jurisdictions nMiddle East and Africa:IFRSs required:Many countriesCHINESE ACC
15、OUNTING STANDARDSnAccounting standards:nMust be authoritatively supported;nOtherwise,no binding effect;nTwo ways to gain authoritative support;nAuthoritativeness from Governmental administration;nMinistry of Finance acting as standards setter in ChinanWidely represented to gain authoritativeness;nTh
16、is is the case of FASBChinese Accounting StandardsnAccounting standards in China;nAccounting system 1993nAccounting Law,2000;nRegulations for Business Financial Reporting,State Council,2000;nUnified Accounting Systems,Ministry of Finance,2001;nNew Accounting Standards,2007 for listed corporations,20
17、08 for large stated owned corporationChinese Accounting StandardsnCSRC and its role in regulating public companies accounting practice;nTwo sets of regulations;nInformation disclosure on forms and contents;nRules for information disclosure;nActually affect public companies accounting practice;nThe c
18、hange of rules on Non-recurring gains and losses;ACCOUNTING STANDARDS EVOLUTION IN CHINAnAfter 1949,we killed all the market;nEverything is under central planning;nWe planned everything,including those unplannable;nNo corporate finance;nNo decision making oriented management accounting;nCosting not
19、cost controlling;nNo auditing;nNo accounting standards too.ACCOUNTING STANDARDS EVOLUTION IN CHINAnCapital markets were founded in Shanghai and Shenzhen in early 1990s;nPublic companies will be responsible for common investors;nAccounting standards are necessary again;n1992,Business Enterprises Acco
20、unting Standards are issued;n1997,the first operational accounting standards was issued;nCompletely revised since 2001;nThe issuance of Unified Accounting System;nAbandon fair value accounting;nReadopt actual cost;nPut restrictiveness on earnings;nFrom earning to capital surplus;nInternationalizatio
21、n;nFrom 2007 all listed corporations in China must use new CAS which is convergence with IFRS;IASB与中国会计准则委员会与中国会计准则委员会n2005年11月，中国会计准则委员会和国际会计准则理事会的代表在北京聚会，讨论关于中国会计准则（CASs）向国际财务报告准则（IFRSs）的趋同问题。IASB与中国会计准则委员会与中国会计准则委员会nIASB代表表示：中国在走向趋同IFRSs的工作已取得巨大进步，向IFRSs趋同是需要时间的，至于如何趋同由中方决定。双方共同认为：未来应以特定方式相互帮助，由于
22、中方的特定情况和环境，就有特殊的经验，其中包括：关联方交易和披露、公允价值计量、资产减值的转回、在同一控制（Common Control）下实体的合并等。IASB与中国会计准则委员会与中国会计准则委员会n会计准则的国际趋同虽是大势所趋，潮流所向，但尚有很多困难需要克服。特别是由外部的独立专家组所制定的准则，一个独立国家的管理当局要采纳它往往是难以容忍的。IASB与中国会计准则委员会与中国会计准则委员会n我国在会计准则的趋同中，由于我国政治、经济、法律、社会与文化的背景的特殊性，应当采取积极慎重的态度，先试点，取得经验，再逐步推广。IFRS/IAS中国会计准则中国会计准则编报财务报表的框架编报财
23、务报表的框架基本准则基本准则附：国际会计准则与中国会计准则附：国际会计准则与中国会计准则 对照表对照表 国际财务报告准则国际财务报告准则中国会计准则中国会计准则IFRS#1 首次应用国际财务报首次应用国际财务报 告准则告准则首次执行企业会计准则首次执行企业会计准则IFRS#2 股票基础支付股票基础支付股份支付股份支付IFRS#3 企业合并企业合并企业合并企业合并IFRS#4 保险合约保险合约保险合同、再保险合同保险合同、再保险合同IFRS#5 为销售而持有的非流为销售而持有的非流 动资产和中止经营动资产和中止经营IFRS#6 矿物资源的勘探和评估矿物资源的勘探和评估石油天然气开采石油天然气开采
24、IFRS#7 金融工具金融工具披露披露金融工具的列报和披露（披金融工具的列报和披露（披露部分）露部分）IFRS#8经营分部经营分部分部报告分部报告国际会计准则（国际会计准则（IAS）中国会计准则中国会计准则 IAS#1 财务报表的列报财务报表的列报财务报表的列报财务报表的列报 IAS#2 存货存货存货存货 IAS#7 现金流量表现金流量表现金流量表现金流量表 IAS#8 会计政策、会计估会计政策、会计估 计的计的 变更和差错变更和差错会计政策、会计估计变更和会计会计政策、会计估计变更和会计差错更正差错更正 IAS#10 资产负债表日后事项资产负债表日后事项资产负债表日后事项资产负债表日后事项
25、IAS#11 建造合同建造合同建造合同建造合同 IAS#12 所得税所得税 所得税所得税 IAS#16 不动产、厂场和设备不动产、厂场和设备固定资产固定资产 IAS#17 租赁租赁租赁租赁国际会计准则（国际会计准则（IAS）中国会计准则中国会计准则 IAS#18 收入收入收入收入 IAS#19 雇员福利雇员福利职工薪酬职工薪酬 IAS#20 政府补助会计和对政府援政府补助会计和对政府援 助的披露助的披露捐赠和补助捐赠和补助 IAS#21 汇率变动的影响汇率变动的影响外币折算外币折算 IAS#23 借款费用借款费用借款费用借款费用 IAS#24 关联方披露关联方披露关联方关系及其交易的披露关联方
26、关系及其交易的披露 IAS#26 退休福利计划的会计和报退休福利计划的会计和报告告企业年金企业年金 IAS#27 IAS#27 合并财务报表和单独财务合并财务报表和单独财务报表报表合并财务报表合并财务报表 IAS#28 在在联营企业中的投资联营企业中的投资投资投资 IAS#29 恶性通货膨胀经济中的财恶性通货膨胀经济中的财务报告务报告国际会计准则（国际会计准则（IAS）中国会计准则中国会计准则 IAS#31 合营中的权益合营中的权益投资投资 IAS#32 金融工具：披露和列报金融工具：披露和列报金融工具的列报和金融工具的列报和披露（列报部分）披露（列报部分）IAS#33 每股收益每股收益每股收
27、益每股收益 IAS#34 中期财务报告中期财务报告中期报告中期报告 IAS#36 资产减值资产减值资产减值资产减值 IAS#37 准备、或有负债和准备、或有负债和 或有资产或有资产或有事项或有事项 IAS#38 无形资产无形资产 无形资产无形资产 IAS#39金融工具：确认和计量金融工具：确认和计量 公允价值套期保值会计：投资组合的公允价值套期保值会计：投资组合的利率风险套期利率风险套期 预测集团内部交易的现金流量的套期预测集团内部交易的现金流量的套期会计（修正稿）会计（修正稿）金融工具确认和计金融工具确认和计量金融资产转移套量金融资产转移套期保值期保值 IAS#40 投资性房地产投资性房地产
28、投资性房地产、投投资性房地产、投资资 IAS#41 农业农业生物资产生物资产CAS与与IFRS/IAS的趋同的趋同n（一）公允价值。新准则对金融工具、投资性房地产、非同一控制下的企业合并、股份支付、债务重组和非货币性交易等方面，都采用了公允价值。根据我国的具体客观环境，新会计准则对公允价值的应用是比较谨慎的。n（二）金融工具。金融工具概念与IFRS完全一致，对金融资产和金融负债与IFRS作了同样的分类。金融资产分为“以公允价值计量且其变动计入当期损益的金融资产；持有至到期的投资；贷款和应收账款；可供出售金融资产”等四类，并对每一类金融资产的计量方法作了具体规定。n（三）股份支付。这是借鉴IFR
29、S的“以股份为基础的支付”准则，股份支付分为以权益结算的股份支付和以现金结算的股份支付两类，均以公允价值计量。CAS与与IFRS/IAS的趋同的趋同n（四）投资性房地产。投资必房地产指为了赚取租金或资本增值，或两者兼有而持有的房地产，并对其计量作出了选择性规定。n（五）对非货币性资产交换中换入资产的计量以及债务重组收益的确认，作了较大的修正。对非货币性资产交换具有商业实质，且换入资产的公允价值能够可靠地计量的，则按换出公允价值计量；债务重组中因债权人让步而导致债务人豁免或者减少偿还负债，原来转入资本公积的做法，改为将债务重组收益计入当期损益，对以实物抵债的，以公允价值计量。n（六）资产减值。针
30、对利用减值准备计提和转回操纵利润的问题，新的“资产减值”准则中明确规定：“资产减值损失一经确认，在以后期间不得转回”。CAS与与IFRS/IAS的趋同的趋同n（七）“同一控制”概念的理解。在企业合并中，对同一控制下企业合并采用权益结合法，这是因为在我国的企业合并大多涉及同一控制下的国有企业合并，按权益结合法可以抑制企业对利润的操纵。n（八）在“关联方披露”准则中规定：“仅仅同受国家控制而不存在其他关联方关系的企业，不构成关联方”。这和IASB对关联方披露的要求不同。新准则的规定显然是考虑了中国存在大量国有企业的实际情况而作出的规定。n(九)所得税不再允许采用应付税款法,必须采用资产负债表债务法
31、,引入了计税基础的概念,强调暂时性差异.MOF ISSUES OFFICIAL INTERPRETATION OF CASS#2nThe PRC Ministry of Finance has issued its second official interpretation of the new Chinese Accounting Standards.It deals with such as the following:nCompanies issuing both A and H shares should adopt same accounting policies and acco
32、unting estimates except for the two substantial differences identified in HK-PRC joint declarations on accounting standards signed in December 2007 CHALLENGE FOR CHINAnclients who adopted IFRS for the first timedid not fully contemplate the amount of financial information,most of which had not been
33、collected in the past that is needed.”This increase in information requirements need to be met with increases in training and knowledge of the new systems by those drawing up financial statements.nDeveloping such expertise is neither an easy nor a particularly rapid procedure.It requires huge upheav
34、als not just from accountants but everyone in the financial market from bankers to investors,and also a firms non-financial workers such as human resources and management.nCultural revolution nJan 11th 2007|HONG KONGnFrom The Economist print editionnNew accounting rules have replaced the Little Red
35、Book as Chinas guide to self-improvement.Can the state handle the truth?CHALLENGE FOR THE WORLD:ACCOUNTING PROVISIONS OF US FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS BAILOUT BILLn The Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 that is being considered by the United States Congress(the so-called financial institution
36、s bailout bill)has as its objective:nTo provide authority for the Federal Government to purchase and insure certain types of troubled assets for the purposes of providing stability to and preventing disruption in the economy and financial system and protecting taxpayers,and for other purposes.Two se
37、ctions relate to fair value measurement accounting issues:SEC.132.AUTHORITY TO SUSPEND MARK-TO-MARKET ACCOUNTING.nThe Securities and Exchange Commission shall have the authority under the securities laws 12 of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934(15 U.S.C.78c(a)(47)to suspend,by rule,regulation,or or
38、der,nthe application of Statement Number 157 of the Financial Accounting Standards Board for any issuer(as such term is defined in section 3(a)(8)of such Act)or with respect to any class or category of transaction if the Commission determines that is necessary or appropriate in the public interest a
39、nd is consistent with the protection of investors.nSec.133.Study on mark-to-market accounting.nThe Securities and Exchange Commission,in consultation with the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System and the Secretary of the Treasury,shall conduct a study on mark-to-market accounting standar
40、ds as provided in Statement Number 157 of the Financial Accounting Standards Board,nas such standards are applicable to financial institutions,including depository institutions.Such a study shall consider at a minimum n(1)the effects of such accounting standards on a financial institutions balance s
41、heet;n(2)the impacts of such accounting on bank failures in 2008;n(3)the impact of such standards on the quality of financial information available to investors;n(4)the process used by the Financial Accounting Standards Board in developing accounting standards;n(5)the advisability and feasibility of
42、 modifications to such standards;and n(6)alternative accounting standards to those provided in such Statement Number 157.nThe SEC must submit the report to Congress within 90 days after enactment of the bill.nThe IASB has announced the current status of its response to the credit crisis and the next
43、 steps it expects to take.In its announcement,the IASB indicated that it is closely monitoring developments in the United States and other jurisdictions to avoid unnecessary inconsistencies in accounting treatments under IFRSs and US generally accepted accounting principles(GAAP).The IASBs next step
44、s will be in the following areas:nEnsure consistency of fair value measurement guidance between IFRSs and US GAAP nConsider the possible impact of the US Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 and other similar programmes internationally on the valuation of assets and liabilities nImmediately
45、consider the ability to reclassify financial instruments.US GAAP permits entities,in rare circumstances,to reclassify financial instruments that are in the form of securities from their trading portfolio(measured at fair value with changes through the income statement)to held to maturity.(measured a
46、t amortised cost and subject to testing for impairment).nAlso US GAAP permits some loans that are not securities to be transferred from Held for Sale(measured at lower of cost or market with changes through the income statement)to Held for Investment(measured at amortised cost and subject to testing
47、 for impairment).IAS 39 does not currently permit such transfers.The IASB intends to assess(at its October 2008 Board meeting)any inconsistencies in how IAS 39 and US GAAP practice address the issue of reclassifications and decide whether to eliminate any differences.CFAS IN EUROPE VOTE AGAINST SUSP
48、ENSION OF FAIR VALUE STANDARDSnIn an overnight poll of CFA Institute members based in the European Union(EU),79%of the 597 respondents do not support the suspension of fair value measurements for financial instruments under IFRSs.85%also think that a suspension of fair value standards would further
49、decrease confidence in the European banking system.AICPA CAQ HAS CONCERNS ABOUT ACCOUNTING SECTIONS OF BAILOUT BILL nOn 30 September 2008,the Center for Audit Quality(CAQ)of the American Institute of CPAs(AICPA)sent a Letter to All Members of Congress stating that proposals advocating suspension of mark-to-market(or fair value)accounting are not in the best interest of investors or the capital markets and should be rejected.
