1、1English Rhetoric Chapter Four The Three Levels of Rhetorical Operations:Choice of Sentences-Page 2 1.Classificationofsentences 2.TypesofSentences2.1Simple,compound,complex,compound-complex2.2Declarative,interrogative,imperative,exclamatory2.3Loose,periodic,balancedsentences2.4LongandshortsentencesC
2、ontentsofThisChapter-Page 31.Classification of sentences1.1 Seeking sentence variety(1)What does sentence variety deal with?u Different sentence patternsu Varied sentence lengths(2)What does sentence variety aim at?u Avoid monotony in ones speech or writingu“The joy of life is variety.”Samuel Johnso
3、n said.So variety of writing or speech is a joy.Without variety,any text can be dull and uninteresting.-Page 41.2 Different standards of classification(4 standards):grammar,function,rhetoric and length(1)Grammatical classification groups sentences according to how many and what types of clauses they
4、 contain.(2)Functional classification groups sentences according to whether they make a statement,ask a question,issue a command,or express an exclamation.(3)Rhetorical classification groups sentences according to where the main idea is located in the sentence.(4)According to the number of words in
5、a sentence,sentences can be grouped into short and long sentence.-Page 52 Types of sentences2.1 Grammatical classification:u Simple sentence:consists of only one clause.The subject or the predicate,or both,may be compound.E.g.The trailer is surrounded by a wooden deck.Advantages:clarity and directne
6、ssu compound sentence:consists of two or more independent clauses related to each other in meaning,and linked by a coordinating conjunction or by a semicolon without a conjunction.E.g.It is nearly half past five,and we cannot reach town before dark.Advantages:help reduce wordiness and relieve monoto
7、ny-Page 6u complex sentence:contains one main clause and at least one dependent clause,with a connective word denoting the relation between them.E.g.Although he wanted the job more than anything else in the world,he knew he had little chance of getting it.u compound-complex sentence:contains at leas
8、t two main clauses and at least one dependent clause-a combination of a compound and complex sentence.E.g.Sister Lucy tried her best to help Martin,but he was an undisciplined boy who drove many teachers to despair.Advantage:good for a show of eloquence-Page 72.2 Functional classification:u Declarat
9、ive sentenceu Interrogative sentenceu Imperative sentenceu Exclamatory sentence-Page 82.3 Rhetorical classification:u Loose sentence:also called cumulative sentence,is a basic statement with a string of details added to it.It is in much the same way as a painter adds details to an initial sketch.E.g
10、.The best procedure will depend on several factors,none of which can be neglected,namely,the genius of the teacher,the intellectual type of pupils,their prospects in life,the opportunities offered by the immediate surroundings of the school,and allied factors of this sort.Advantages:no anticipatory
11、tension for the readers or listeners,easy,simple,natural-Page 9u Periodic sentence:is a sentence in which the subordinate idea comes first and the main idea comes last.Periodic sentence is especially useful for creating tension or building toward a climactic or surprising ending.E.g.But if life hard
12、ly seems worth living,if liberty is used for subhuman purposes,if the pursuers of happiness know nothing about the nature of their quarry or the elementary techniques of hunting,these constitution rights will not be very meaningful.Advantages:impressive,well-balanced,and stately(formal);Disadvantage
13、s:violate the Memory Principle,the longer the sentence is,the greater the burden upon the memory,and the greater the tension.An occasional periodic sentence is not only dramatic but also persuasive.However,we must remember:used once or twice in a piece of writing,they can be very effective,used any
14、more than that,they can make us sound dull and pompous.-Page 10uBalanced sentence:contains two or more main points,which are paired off and are presented in parallel structures so that the parts are equally prominent and mutually supportive.E.g.Mankind must put an end to war,or war will put an end t
15、o mankind.Advantages:Balanced sentence is most often used in speeches,because it allows the hearers to get the meaning of the words through repetition in the sentence structure.Besides,the balanced sentence has another effect:creating the impression that the writer is a learned,experienced person wh
16、ose opinions are worth considering,making the writer more persuasive.-Page 112.4 According to length:Average number of words:about 20(Hou Weirui)Short sentence:about 10 words Long sentence:20 words u Short sentenceShort sentences are usually emphatic because they are easy to be understood and rememb
17、ered.Short sentences are suitable for the presentation of important facts and ideas.Therefore,they are often used in advertising,proverbs,signs,et.E.g.Liars should have good memories.(Proverb)No Admittance!(sign)Advantages:Short sentences,if overused,will make the writing sound choppy,jerky,immature
18、 and monotonous.-Page 12u Long sentence Long sentences are capable of expressing complex ideas with precision because they may contain a number of modifiers.Long sentences are suitable for the explanation of views and theories,and for description of things with many details.E.g.Any person who withou
19、t lawful authority enters or attempts to enter any prison property or loiters about or near or communicates or attempts to communicate in any way with any prisoners is liable to imprisonment for a term of six months or a penalty of$200 or both.Long sentences are common in legal,political and theoret
20、ical writing,which depends on modification for accuracy.Sentences in such documents are made long by the fact that statements and opinions have to be made very clear and explicit,leaving no room misunderstanding or misinterpretation.-Page 13u Alternating short and long sentencesBoth short sentences
21、and long sentences have their own advantages and disadvantages.Therefore,to make our writing effective,we need to use both short and long sentences,if possible,we should use them alternatively.After one or two long sentences,a short sentence can always be refreshing and arresting.Similarly,a long se
22、ntence that follows a series of short ones can serve as a climax or summation that relaxes the tension or fulfils the expectation created by the series,giving readers a sense of completion.-Page 14Exercise:Rewrite the following paragraph to give it more variety in sentence structure.Make any other i
23、mprovements that you can.Values play a major role in our society.People use these values to make certain decisions in their lives.Values can be stated as a persons view of right and wrong.Courage is an extension of a persons values.Courage takes a persons values and puts them into the persons life.H
24、ow people use their courage is completely up to them.This courage could be physical or mental.Anyone can make a courageous act.It is only the ones who follow through their intentions by actions who are truly courageous.-Page 15Improved version:Values,which can be understood as ones views of right an
25、d wrong,play a major role in our society and people use them to make decisions in their lives.Courage is an extension of a persons values,and it demonstrates his or her views in this respect in practice.Although a courageous act can be physical or mental,it is up to every person to decide how to perform it,and only those who can follow through their intentions are truly courageous if their actions are beneficial to society.-16-
