1、Slides prepared by Thomas BishopCopyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. Chapter 4 Resources Endowment, Comparative Advantage, and Income Distribution 4-2 Preview Production possibilities Production and Prices Resources Allocation and Output Trade in the Heckscher-Ohlin model The
2、Gains from Trade Factor price equalization Income distribution and income inequality Empirical evidence 4-3 Introduction While trade is partly explained by differences in labor productivity, it also can be explained by differences in resources across countries. The Heckscher-Ohlin theory argues that
3、 differences in labor, labor skills, physical capital, land or other factors of production across countries create productive differences that explain why trade occurs. A Guiding Case 20世纪60年代，已是制成品出口主要国家的荷兰发现 了大量天然气，荷兰政府大力发展天然气，出口剧增 ，国际收支出现顺差，经济显现繁荣景象。可是，蓬 勃发展的天然气业却严重打击了荷兰的农业和其他工 业部门，削弱了出口行业的国际竞争力。
4、到20世纪70 年代，荷兰出现了通货膨胀上升、制成品出口下降、 收入增长率降低、失业率增加等问题。这种被成为“ 荷兰病”的现象在本章的模型中将得到解释。 本章将回答以下问题：当一国从封闭走向开放之后， 产品的相对价格会发生怎样的变动？产品价格的变动 如何引起要素价格的变动？谁会在产品价格的变化中 受益？而谁又会受损呢？ Definitions Factor Endowment (要素禀赋要素禀赋): the overall amount of productive factors , such as capital, labor, and land, available to one nati
5、on. 思考：全球经济一体化会改变中国的要素禀赋 结构吗？ 4-5 Definitions(Cont.) Factor Abundance（要素丰裕度要素丰裕度） There are two ways to define factor abundance. One way is in terms of physical units(i.e., in terms of the overall amount of capital and labor available to each nation). Another way is in terms of relative factor price
6、(i.e., in terms of the rental price of capital and the price of labor time in each nation). 要素丰裕度通常用两国要素总量的相对比率来表示。 如果本国劳动相对于资本的供给大于外国劳动相对于 资本的供给，即满足 的时候，称本国是 劳动丰裕（labor-abundant)的国家，外国是资本丰裕 (capital-abundant)的国家。 4-6 * L KL K 国家土地（万平方公里）人口（亿） 俄罗斯 1707.51.4178 加拿大 997.060.3317 美国 962.93.147 中国 96013
7、.39 巴西 854.741.94 澳大利亚 769.20.2095 印度 328.712.15 表表4.1 4.1 部分国家的土地面积和人口部分国家的土地面积和人口 资料来源：The World 2005，日本贸易振兴会议厅，2005年6月 14日，联合国2010年世界人口状况报告。 Discuss “The worlds poorest countries cannot find anything to export. There is no resource that is abundantcertainly not capital or land, and in small poor
8、nations not even labor is abundant.” 4-8 Definitions(Cont.) Factor Intensity (要素密集度要素密集度) In a world of two commodities (X and Y) and two factors (labor and capital), at any given wage-interest, we say that commodity Y is capital intensive if the capital-labor ratio (K/L) used in the production of Y
9、 is greater than K/L used in the production of X. 要素密集度指生产一定量的某种产品时，两种生产要素 投入的比例。例如，在两种产品（食品和钢铁）、两种 要素（劳动和资本）的经济体中，当工资-利率比既定 的时候，如果钢铁生产中的资本-劳动比要大于食品生 产中的资本-劳动比，即满足 时，钢铁是 资本密集型产品，食品是劳动密集型产品。 4-9 SSFF KLKL 资本 劳动 布（1单位） 2 6 钢铁（1单位） 4 8 表表4.2 生产钢铁和布的要素投入生产钢铁和布的要素投入 从相对要素投入比例来看，布是劳动密集型产品， 钢铁是资本密集型产品。 Sev
10、eral ideas underlie H-O Theory 产品生产中要素的使用比例（要素需求）和一 国的要素禀赋（要素供给）决定要素生产率和 要素价格从而影响产品成本，成为决定比较优 势和生产贸易模式的重要因素。 一个国家出口的是本国要素比较丰裕、在生产 中密集使用这种要素的产品，而进口的是本国 要素比较稀缺、在生产中密集使用这种要素的 产品。 4-11 Two-Factor Heckscher-Ohlin Model 4-12 4-13 Assumptions in H-O Model (222 Model) 1.Only two goods are important for prod
11、uction and consumption: cloth and food. 2.Only two countries are modeled: domestic and foreign 3.There is two factors: labor and land. Labor services and land are the resources important for production. 4.The supply of labor services and land in each country is constant. 5.The amount of labor servic
12、es and land varies across countries, and this variation influences productivity. 4-14 Production Possibilities When there is more than one factor of production, the opportunity cost in production is no longer constant and the PPF is no longer a straight line. (当生产要素 不止一种时，生产的机会成本不再是固定不变的，PPF 不再是一条直线
13、。Why? ) Lets expand the previous chapters model to include two factors of production, labor services and land. aTC = hectares of land used to produce one m2 of cloth aLC = hours of labor used to produce one m2 of cloth aTF = hectares of land used to produce one calorie of food aLF = hours of labor u
14、sed to produce one calorie of food L = total amount of labor services available for production T = total amount of land (terrain) available for production 4-15 Production Possibilities (cont.) Production possibilities are influenced by both land and labor (requirements): aTFQF + aTCQC T aLFQF + aLCQ
15、C L Total amount of land resources Land required for each unit of food production Total units of food production Land required for each unit of cloth production Total units of cloth production Total amount of labor resources Labor required for each unit of food production Labor required for each uni
16、t of cloth production 4-16 Production Possibilities (cont.) Lets assume that each unit of cloth production uses labor services intensively(棉布密集使用劳动力要素) and each unit of food production uses land intensively(粮食密集使用土地要素): aLC /aTC aLF/aTF Or aLC /aLF aTC /aTF Or, we consider the total resources used i
17、n each industry and say that cloth production is labor intensive(劳动密集型劳动密集型) and food production is land intensive(土地密集型土地密集型) if LC /TC LF /TF. 4-17 Fig. 4-1: The Production Possibility Frontier Without Factor Substitution 4-18 Production Possibilities (cont.) If producers can substitute one input
18、for another in the production process, then the PPF becomes curved(当一种要素投入可以替 代另一种要素投入时，PPF线变成曲线). For example, many workers could work on a small plot of land or a few workers could work on a large plot of land to produce the same amount of output. Unit factor requirements can very at every quantit
19、y of cloth and food that could be produced. 4-19 Fig. 4-2: The Production Possibility Frontier with Factor Substitution If land can be substituted for labor vice versa, the PPF no longer has a kink. But it remains true that the opportunity cost of cloth in terms of food rises(生产棉 布的机会成本递增) as the ec
20、onomys production mix shifts toward cloth and away from food. 4-20 Production Possibilities (cont.) The opportunity cost of producing cloth in terms of food is not constant in this model: its low when the economy produces a low amount of cloth and a high amount of food its high when the economy prod
21、uces a high amount of cloth and a low amount of food Because when the economy devotes all resources towards the production of a single good, the marginal productivity of those resources tends to be low so that the (opportunity) cost of production tends to be high. 4-21 Prices and Production The prod
22、uction possibility frontier describes what an economy can produce, but to determine what the economy does produce, we must determine the prices of goods.(究竟在PPF上的哪一点生产取决于两 种产品的价格。) In general, the economy should produce at the point that maximizes the value of production, V: V = PCQC + PFQF where PC
23、 is the price of cloth and PF is the price of food. 4-22 Prices and Production(cont.) Define an isovalue line(等价值线) as a line representing a constant value of production, V. V = PCQC + PFQF PFQF = V PCQC QF = V/PF (PC /PF)QC The slope of an isovalue line is (PC /PF) 4-23 Fig. 4-3: Prices and Product
24、ion The economy produces at the point that maximizes the value of production given the prices it faces; this is the point that is on the highest possible isovalue line. At the point, the opportunity cost of cloth in terms of food is equal to the relative price of cloth, PC/PF. 4-24 Prices and Produc
25、tion(cont.) Given prices of output, a point on one isovalue line represents the maximum value of production, say at a point Q. At that point, the slope of the PPF equals (PC /PF), so the opportunity cost of cloth equals the relative price of cloth(生产棉布的机 会成本等于棉布的相对价格). 4-25 Resources Allocation and
26、Output Producers may choose different amounts of factors of production used to make cloth or food.(在棉布和粮食 的生产中需要投入多少要素，取决于要素价格。) An economy with a high ratio of land to labor services is predicted to a low lending/ renting rate r relative to wage rate w(r/w), have a high output of food relative to c
27、loth and a low price of food relative to cloth. It will be relatively efficient at (have a comparative advantage in) producing food. It will be relatively inefficient at producing cloth. An economy is predicted to be relatively efficient at producing goods that are intensive in the factors of produc
28、tion in which the country is relatively well endowed (一国将会在密集使用其相对丰裕要素的产品 生产上具有较高效率或比较优势). Trade in the Heckscher- Ohlin Model and Its Effects 4-26 4-27 Trade in the H-O Model Suppose that the domestic country has an abundant amount of labor services relative to land. The domestic country is abundan
29、t(丰裕) in labor services and the foreign country is abundant in land: L/T L*/ T* Likewise, the domestic country is scarce(稀缺) in land and the foreign country is scarce in labor services. However, the countries are assumed to have the same technology and same consumer tastes. Because the domestic coun
30、try is abundant in labor services(劳动力丰富), it will be relatively efficient at producing cloth because cloth is labor intensive(劳动 密集型). Trade in the H-O Model (cont.) An economy is predicted to be relatively efficient at (have a comparative advantage in) producing goods that are intensive in its abun
31、dant factors of production. Heckscher-OhlinTheorem(H-O定理): An economy is predicted to export goods that are intensive in its abundant factors of production and import goods that are intensive in its scarce factors of production.(一个 国家将出口密集使用其相对丰富要素的商品，进口密 集使用其相对稀缺要素的商品。) Home, the labor-abundant cou
32、ntry, exports cloth, the labor- intensive good; Foreign, the land-abundant country, exports food, the land-intensive good. 4-28 4-29 Fig. 4-13: Trading Equilibrium Discussion: Factor Endowment and “the comparative advantage trap” in China 什么是“比较优势陷阱”？ 中国依靠劳动力成本优势获得了对外贸易的长足发展 ，对经济增长作出了哪些贡献？ 近年来，中国的对外
33、贸易发展越来越受到“比较优势 陷阱”的制约，为什么？ 如何跨越“比较优势陷阱”？ 4-30 Trade and relative prices converge Trade leads to a convergence of relative prices(贸易导致产品相对价格的收敛). When Home and Foreign trade with each other, their relative prices converge. The relative price of cloth rise in Home and declines in Foreign, and a new wo
34、rld relative price of cloth is established at a point somewhere between the pretrade relative prices, say at point 2. 4-31 4-32 Fig. 4-11: Trade Leads to a Convergence of Relative Prices 贸易前，点1是本国的均衡点， 点3是外国的均衡点。贸易后， 世界棉布的相对价格位于贸易 前两国棉布的相对价格之间， 如点2所示。 4-33 Trade and Income Distribution Trade increas
35、e income inequality between abundant factor and scarce factor. Stolper-Samuelson theorem :长期内，出口产品生产 部门密集使用的生产要素（本国的充裕要素）的报酬 提高；进口产品生产中密集使用的生产要素（本国的 稀缺要素）的报酬下降。 A rise in the price of cloth raises the purchasing power of domestic workers, but lowers the purchasing power of domestic land owners. The
36、model predicts that owners of abundant factors gain with trade, but owners of scarce factors lose. 4-34 Does Trade Increase Income Inequality? 贸易加剧收入不平等了吗？ Over the last 40 years, countries like South Korea, Mexico, and China have exported to the U.S. goods intensive in unskilled labor (ex., clothin
37、g, shoes, toys, assembled goods). At the same time, income inequality has increased in the U.S., as wages of unskilled workers have grown slowly compared to those of skilled workers. Did the former trend cause the latter trend? 4-35 Does Trade Increase Income Inequality? (cont.) The Heckscher-Ohlin
38、model predicts that owners of abundant factors will gain from trade and owners of scarce factors will lose from trade. But little evidence supporting this prediction exists. 1.According to the model, a change in the distribution of income occurs through changes in output prices, but there is no evid
39、ence of a change in the prices of skill-intensive goods relative to prices of unskilled- intensive goods.(国际贸易并没有通过引起产品价格 的变化进而导致要素收入的变化。) 4-36 Does Trade Increase Income Inequality? 2.According to the model, wages of unskilled workers should increase in unskilled labor abundant countries relative t
40、o wages of skilled labor, but in some cases the reverse has occurred.(发展中国家的 相对工资差距并没有如理论预期那样缩小) Wages of skilled labor have increased more rapidly in Mexico than wages of unskilled labor. But compared to the U.S. and Canada, Mexico is supposed to be abundant in unskilled workers. 3.Even if the mode
41、l were exactly correct, trade is a small fraction of the U.S. economy, so its effects on U.S. prices and wages prices should be small. (与发 展中国家的贸易只占美国经济的一小部分，对美国产 品价格和要素价格的影响很小) Discussion: South-North trade and relative wage gap 根据H-O理论和S-S定理（简称H-O-S理论），南北贸 易后，发达国家和发展中国家的熟练劳动力与非熟练 劳动力间的相对工资差距将如何变动？
42、 H-O-S理论对发达国家和发展中国家相对工资差距的 预测是否与实际相符？ H-O-S理论对相对工资的预测存在哪些局限性？ 4-37 4-38 Factor Price Equalization The factor price equalization theorem(要素价格均等化 定理) :Because relative output prices are equalized and because of the direct relationship between output prices and factor prices, factor prices are also equ
43、alized. (由于产品价格和要素价格的一一对应关系， 贸易后，产品相对价格的趋同会导致土地和劳动的相 对价格的趋同) Trade increases the demand of goods produced by abundant factors, indirectly increasing the demand of the abundant factors themselves, raising the prices of the abundant factors across countries. 4-39 Factor Price Equalization (cont.) In t
44、he real world factor prices are not equalized. Why?(现实中要素价格并未实现均等化，为什么？) 1. The model assumes that trading countries have the same technology, but different technologies(技术差 异) could affect the productivities of factors and therefore the wages/rates paid to these factors. 2. The model also ignores t
45、rade barriers and transportation costs(贸易壁垒和运输成本的存在使得 贸易不是完全自由的), which may prevent output prices and factor prices from equalizing. 4-40 Factor Price Equalization (cont.) 3. The model predicts outcomes for the long run, but after an economy liberalizes trade, factors of production may not quickly m
46、ove to the industries(生产要素不能在产业间完全自由流动) that intensively use abundant factors. In the short run, the productivity of factors will be determined by their use in their current industry, so that their wage/rate may vary across countries. 4-41 Empirical Evidence of the H-O Model Tests on US data Leontie
47、f found that U.S. exports were less capital- intensive than U.S. imports, even though the U.S. is the most capital-abundant country in the world: Leontief paradox. Leontief paradox(里昂惕夫之谜里昂惕夫之谜):如果H-O理论的 预测是正确的，而且美国是资本相对充裕的，那么 美国出口行业的资本劳动比率（K/L）应该高于进 口竞争行业的资本劳动比率。然而，里昂惕夫通过 对美国进、出口行业的实证检验表明，1947年，美 国
48、向世界其他国家出口的是劳动密集型产品，而换 取的是相对资本密集的进口产品！ HO模型的实证检验：美国数据 学者数据年份(Kx/Lx)/(Km/Lm) (H-O预测: 1) 威特尼(Whitney，1968)18991.12 里昂惕夫 (Leontief，1954)19470.77 里昂惕夫 (Leontief，1956)1947-19510.94 (或不包括自然资 源行业，1.14) 鲍德温 (Baldwin，1971)1958-19620.79 (或不包括自然资 源行业，0.96) 斯特南德和马斯克斯 (Sternand & Maskus，1981) 19721.05 (或不包括自然资 源行
49、业，1.08) 4-43 Table 4-2: Factor Content of U.S. Exports and Imports for 1962 Explains for the Leontief paradox 1. 要素非同质论要素非同质论：生产要素禀赋有质量上的差异，美国是 熟练劳动相对丰富的国家，因此出口的是熟练劳动密 集型产品。 2. 人力资本说人力资本说：美国劳动力含有更多的人力资本，人力资 本形成需要更多的教育和培训，这使美国出口商品的 资本密集度要大于进口商品的资本密集度。 3. 自然资源论自然资源论：里昂剔夫的计算没有剔除自然资源的影响 。美国大量进口的是自然资源密集型
50、的矿产品，大量 出口的是主要使用土地和劳动力的农产品。（美国从 加拿大进口大量的矿产品，同时向日本和印度出口大 量的农产品。） 4. 贸易保护论贸易保护论：一方面，美国为保护非熟练劳动力的利 益，进口劳动密集型产品比进口资本密集型产品受到 更严格的进口壁垒限制。另一方面，别的国家也可能 对它们缺乏竞争力的资本密集型产品进行较高的贸易 保护，从而使得美国资本密集型产品的出口受到了一 定程度的影响。 5. 生产要素密集度的逆转论生产要素密集度的逆转论：在这种情况下，结果可能 是：美国出口商品A，该商品在别的国家是资本密集型 的但在美国却是劳动密集型的；同时，美国进口的商 品B，该商品在外国是劳动密
