1、第三讲：两河流域的遗产第三讲：两河流域的遗产 在公元前4000年时，底格里斯河和幼发拉底河流域的苏美尔人发明了犁，并且利用家畜来拖犁他们制造了用动物拖动的轮车，建造船舶，并且用陶轮来制造焙干的陶器。 在天文学方面，埃及人的成绩不如巴比伦人除了月份以外，巴比伦人还给我们提供了另一个时间单位，即星期。他们用太阳、月亮和五大行星的名字来称呼星期中的7天。将一天分成以2小时为单位的12时，每小时分为60分，每分60秒，也都是他们创始的。此外，我们用来称呼各个星座的那些名称也都是巴比伦人取的斯蒂芬斯蒂芬F梅森：梅森：自然科学史自然科学史西亚的新月形地带西亚的新月形地带 埃及文明的东北方向，越过苏伊士地峡
2、和西奈，便是地中海东岸的巴勒斯坦、腓尼基、叙利亚以及夹在幼发拉底河和底格里斯河中间的美索不达米亚和巴比伦尼亚草原。这是一块新月形的地带，它的西北部是与欧洲相望的小亚半岛，北部是亚美尼亚高原山地，东边是中亚的伊朗高原，弯月的东南角随两河流向一直延伸到波斯湾，整个弯月怀抱着叙利亚沙漠和阿拉伯半岛。 这是亚洲西部的一块沃野，周围有丰富的自然资源。自古以来这里就居住着并从周围地区吸引来了无数部落和众多的民族，在语言、知识、技术及宗教和文化上相互影响，不同程度地融合，培育了人类古代文明的又一朵奇葩。 这块土地上发生了一连串的战争，先后兴起众多大大小小国家。这里的历史事件同东北非洲的埃及，地中海东部沿岸的
3、希腊的发展，经常联系在一起。The MesopotamiaMiddle EastThe Fertile CrescentCivilization developed slowly in different parts of the world. People began to settle in areas with abundant natural resources. A section of the Middle East is called the Fertile Crescent. The Fertile Crescent is a rich food-growing area in
4、 a par t of the world where most of the land is too dry for farming. The Fertile Crescent is a quarter-moon shaped region that extends from the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. Some of the best farmland of the Fertile Crescent is on a narrow strip of land between the Tigri
5、s and Euphrates Rivers. The Greeks later called this area Mesopotamia, which means “between the rivers.” Many different civilizations developed in this small region. First came the Sumerians, who were replaced in turn by the Assyrians and the Babylonians. Today this land is known as Iraq. 多变的历史风云多变的
6、历史风云苏美尔人公元前4300年建立城市国家，延续近2000年。后来其北部闪族阿卡德人统治了100多年(公元前2371-公元前2230)。东方库提人入侵后，乌尔的第三王朝复兴(公元前2113-公元前2006)。继之闪族阿摩利人建立古巴比伦王国(公元前1894-公元前1595左右)。公元前746年至公元前612年属亚述帝国。亚述帝国后，迦勒底人建立了新巴比伦王国(公元前626-公元前539)，后来是波斯王居鲁士建立的波斯帝国统治，一直到亚里山大公元前330年的征服。亚历山大部将建立塞琉古王国，一直延续到公元前67年。接着罗马的庞培征服小亚和叙利亚。罗马帝国时期和帕提亚王国及后来重新崛起的波斯的角
7、逐。公元638年阿拉伯人征服了这里。1055年，塞尔柱土耳其人统治了两河流域。随之闯入这里的还有欧洲十字军。1258年蒙古骑兵攻下了巴格达，蒙哥的弟弟旭烈兀以波斯和两河流域为中心建立了伊儿汗国。1393年突厥化的蒙古贵族帖木尔的军队攻陷巴格达。1500年至1550年，奥斯曼土耳其人攻占两河流域。第一次世界大战后，两河流域的大部分地区被英法两国从土耳其帝国中分割出来。第二次世界大战后，这里出现了以阿拉伯人为主的独立国家-巴勒斯坦、约旦、黎巴嫩、叙利亚、伊拉克和以色列等。History, IraqIn this summary, Mesopotamia is used for the region
8、, while Iraq is used from the time of the Arab conquest.3100 BCE: The civilization of Sumer, with city states, which develops systems of irrigation, trade and writing.Around 2600: Akkadians moves into Mesopotamia.Around 2350: Akkadian kingdom established by Sargon.Around 1950: Invasion of Sumer by E
9、lamites and Amoritts.1728- 1686: Hammurabi, the most famous Amorittian ruler of Babylonia.Around 1590: The Kassites take power.Around 1370: Assyria starts to become a regional power.1168: Kassites are driven out of power by the Elamites.Around 1120: Babylonia becomes a strong power.Around 1000: Aram
10、eans move into the Mesopotamian region.669: Babylon destroyed by the Assyrians.629- 539: New Babylonian kingdom under the Chaldeans.614: Fall of Assyria.539: Mesopotamian region is conquered by Persians, under the control of Cyrus 2 the Great.331: Conquest by Alexander the Great.312: Greek Seleucid
11、dynasty reigns in Mesopotamia, with Seleucia as capital, infusing Hellenistic culture.192-188: War between the Seleucids and the Romans.64: The Seleucid dynasty falls apart, and Mesopotamia is conquered by the Persian dynasty Arsacids. Mesopotamia becomes one of the richest provinces here, called Kh
12、varvaran. Persians were the elite, while the Semits represented a clear majority of the population. The Semits spoke Aramaic, but there were several other peoples in the region. 226 CE: The Sassanids take power in Iran. 627: Byzantine invasion, and the region was weakened politically and economicall
13、y.637: Muslim Arabs defeat the Sassanids, and Mesopotamia was overtaken after only one year.680: Battle at Karbala, where the Shii- leader Husayn was killed when claiming the leading position in the Caliphate. The battle was not military important, but had decisive political and religious importance
14、, as this became the final schism between Sunnis and Shiis.701: Control regained by the Caliphate.762: A new capital for the Caliphate is founded, placed on the river Tigris, about 15 km north of Ctesiphon. The new city is called Baghdad, and grows quickly into a beautiful city.1245: Mongol attack o
15、n Baghdad, without success.1258: A weakened Baghdad, after disastrous floods, falls to the Mongols. The city is destroyed, citizens are massacred, and the Caliph executed: The Caliphate is over, and the economy of Iraq is destroyed for centuries.1405: Iraq falls under control of Turkish tribes from
16、Anatolia.1508: Iraq is put under Iranian Safavid control.1533-34: Iraq is conquered by the Ottoman Empire. The peace this brought, represented a clear improvement to Iraqi economy, primarily the in the agricultural sector.17th century: Increase of local power. British, Dutch and Portuguese interests
17、 get a foothold in trade in the region.1638: The Ottoman control over Baghdad is restored.18th century: Mamluks are used to suppress tribal risings and Iranian infiltration, and they stayed to become a local ruling dynasty.1831: Iraq is back under direct Ottoman rule, as the last Mamluk ruler is dep
18、osed.1914: As a part of World War 1, British forces invade southern Iraq.1917: British occupation of Baghdad begins.1920: Arabs of southern Iraq starts military actions towards the British, who did not fulfill their promises to leave the area to the locals after the Turks were defeated.1921: Prince
19、Faisal of Hijaz (now: southwestern Saudi Arabia) wins a popular election, with 96% of the ballots, and is declared king of Iraq August 23. 1932 October 3: Iraq is declared independent kingdom with king Faisal in power. Iraq is admitted to the League of Nations.1933: Faisal dies. His son, Ghazi, succ
20、eeds him.1945- 46: Unrest among the Kurds, believed to be supported by the Soviet Union.1948: After Israel declares independence joins the Arab states in their attacks on the new country.1960: Iraq makes claims on Kuwait, which receives its independence this year.1963 February 8: Kassem is overthrow
21、n by a group of officers, mainly from the Bath Party. 1979 June: President Bakr is stripped of all positions and put in house arrest. Saddam Hussayn becomes new president.1981: Israelis bombs a nuclear reactor outside Baghdad.1982: Counter offensive from Iran, reclaiming much of the land occupied by
22、 Iraq.1988 August 20: Cease fire with Iran. Brutal actions against Kurds inside Iraq, where poisonous gas is used to kill thousands of civilians.1990 August 2: Invasion and occupation of Kuwait. UN demands a withdrawal by January 15, 1991.2003 February 5: Colin Powell presents proofs to the United N
23、ations Security Council that Iraq still produces and holds weapons for mass destructions. Powell also presents proofs that there is a link between Iraq and Al-Qaida by the Kurdish group Ansar al-Islam. Western non-US affiliated inspectors to Iraq later declared Powells proofs on mass destruction to
24、be a lie, and US has never issued any arrest order on the leader of Ansar al-Islam living in full freedom in Oslo, the capital of Norway. March 20: USA and Britain starts the war against Iraq, following a final demand from US president George W. Bush on March 18 (Iraqi time) that Saddam Hussein and
25、his sons must leave Iraq no later than March 20, 4 oclock. Attacks are first performed by bombing of southern Iraq and Baghdad.2004 June 28: Autonomy is restored for Iraq as an interim government under the leadership of Iyad Allawi takes power. Still, there are large foreign troops (mainly US and Br
26、itish) in Iraq which does not answer to the iraqi government. Through the second half of 2004 the situation in Iraq worsens, involving more and more effective attack on both Iraqi government installations and foreign troops. Kidnappings of foreign civilians, often leading to their execution has beco
27、me a preferred strategy for disrupting the establishment of a new state.2005 April 6: Kurdish Jalal Talabani elected President of Iraq. April 7: The Shii Ibrahim Jaafari is appointed Prime Minister 2006 Saddam Hussayn died.苏美尔人的最初创造 苏美尔人Sumerians从东方进入两河流域南部。他们的石刻像大部分圆颅、短颈、光头、光面，与长脸多须的闪族人迥然不同。他们于公元前4
28、300年进入定居的城市生活，建立了以耕种为主的城邦，有乌尔、乌鲁克、尼普尔、拉伽什、基什、波尔西巴等。最后形成以其中一个城市为首的苏美尔王国。 由于平原上石材缺乏，苏美尔人用泥砖建筑，发明了拱门、拱顶和穹窿结构。 苏美尔人青铜技术达到很高水平，他们还是世界上最早的轮车的发明者。 在军事方面，他们已有军旗和马拉的战车，战士戴铜盔，持大斧、投矛、弓箭和盾，以六排方阵队形前进。这种方阵战术后来为希腊人和马其顿人所采用。 天文学，对星的崇拜，和 星期Week的制订 两河Tigris , Euphrates,泛滥是没有规律，人生祸福无常，天上的星星运行却有周期。苏美尔人相信是神主宰着尘世祸福，星便是神的
29、化身，星的运行和地上事件有关。他们在城市中心建造塔庙Ziggurat，作为祭神中心，也作为天文台使用。乌尔塔庙 乌尔古城位于美索不达米亚的幼发 拉底河附近，乌尔塔庙就矗 立在这座伟大的城市之上。 乌尔塔庙由苏美尔人建造于公元前2112年公元前2095年乌尔一纳莫国王统治时期。它是一座坚实的砖体，基底长64米，宽46米。塔庙最初坐落在一片拥有其他神庙的圣区一角。 塔庙一般是一座神庙的塔楼，其外形看上去酷似金字塔。乌尔塔庙有3道台阶，每道100级，通往第一层和第二层平台之间的门廊。从这里再经过一道台阶后便通往塔庙的顶部和祭奉神南努的小圣坛 。月神是乌尔古城之神。左图：巨大的乌尔塔庙竖立在伊拉克沙漠
30、上。乌尔塔庙的大部分经过漫 长的岁月依然坚立着，这是苏美尔人留下的最重要的建筑。右图：乌尔塔庙有3道给人以深刻印象的台阶，它通向神庙的第二层。先知亚伯拉罕出生并居住在乌尔城，当时该城位于一片翠绿的农田中，外围有一条护城河。现 在的乌尔位于一片差不多被沙丘所覆盖的沙漠区。幼发拉底河也不再流经乌尔城，它已改造，朝另一个方向流去。乌鲁克座塔乌鲁克城废墟上的这座塔是残留的最古老的美索不达米亚塔庙(层进式神庙)之一。据考证，塔庙建于公元前21世纪，它是乌尔那姆(Nammu)国王为了表示对生育女神的尊敬而建的。波尔西巴七层神庙-星期 波尔西巴著名的七层神庙是献给日月和五大行星的，各层的颜色均不同，在当时被
31、称为奇观。Planet color god-goddess Week Sun golden Shamash* sun t Sunday Moon silver Sin* Moon Monday Mars red war Tuesday Mercury sky blue message WednesdayJupiter orange marduk* ThursdayVenus light yellow Ishtar* love FridaySaturn black agriculture Saturday黄道十二宫黄道十二宫 农业使认识季节越来越重要，天文观测目的：计时和预知未来的世界。苏美尔人
32、把太阳每年在天球背景上的历程分为12宫，每一宫的星座都以神话中的神或动物命名。即黄道十二宫，从春分点起分别为： 白羊、金牛、双子、巨蟹、狮子、室女、天秤、白羊、金牛、双子、巨蟹、狮子、室女、天秤、天蝎、人马、摩羯、宝瓶、双鱼天蝎、人马、摩羯、宝瓶、双鱼。他们的天文学为今天的计时系统奠定基础，星空划分和命名则一直相沿至今。 他们制定的阴历(公元前4700年左右)比埃及历法早500年左右。 埃及的阳历和西亚的阴历 阳历阳历，以太阳和地球太阳和地球的相对位置确定年、月。在古代，精确地观测日影的高低、日出日落的方位是确定阳历的基础。 阴历阴历是以月月为基础的，每月初新月傍晚挂在西天，每月中则见到一轮圆
33、月。 在人类认识的时间单位中，日、月、年等单位在某种程度上都是自然界加于人类的：每日一次日升日落，每月一次月圆月缺，每年一次冷暖寒暑。 人类制订的时间：西方，Week 。中国：每月上中下三旬 中国接受了星期后，翻译为七曜日： 12进制，进制，60进制，圆周分度，进制，圆周分度， 苏美尔人在天文观测时发明了日晷，计时用水钟，记数用十二进制，也用十进制，这使他们十分重视60这个数，圆周的360分度也是从这里开始的。他们制定了乘法表、倒数表、平方表、立方表和立方根表，能计算矩形的面积、立方体和圆柱体的体积(=3)。 苏美尔人苏美尔人的天文学超过天文学超过了同时期的埃及人埃及人，但在医学上又远不如埃及
34、人医学上又远不如埃及人，他们没有建造讲究没有建造讲究的坟墓的习惯的坟墓的习惯，没有保存木乃伊的习惯没有保存木乃伊的习惯，因而也没有人体解剖的习惯没有人体解剖的习惯。毫无医药知识的巫师和驱巫师和驱神赶鬼的人神赶鬼的人执行着医疗医疗的职责。cuneiform 苏美尔人在象形文字基础上创造出一套楔形文字，这些文字用芦杆写在泥板上，文字是在专门的学校里教学的。当时的知识便是由这些泥板文书流传下来的。这种楔形文字随后成了西亚的通用文字，并和埃及的象形文字一起哺育了腓尼基人的文字。波斯文字的字母也由它改造而来。苏美尔人最早制定的法典后来成为建立古巴比伦的阿摩利人、亚述人、迦勒底人和希伯来人法律的基础。cu
35、neiform writingPictograms, or drawings representing actual things, were the basis for cuneiform writing. As shown in the chart, early pictograms resembled the objects they represented, but through repeated use over time they began to look simpler, even abstract. These marks eventually became wedge-s
36、haped (cuneiform), and could convey sounds or abstract concepts.Sumerians created cuneiform script over 5000 years ago. It was the worlds first written language. The last known cuneiform inscription was written in 75 AD. 泥板文书泥板文书 The first pictograms were drawn in vertical columns with a pen made fr
37、om a sharpened reed. Then two developments made the process quicker and easier: People began to write in horizontal rows, and a new type of pen was used which was pushed into the clay, producing wedge-shaped signs that are known as cuneiform writing. Cuneiform was written on clay tablets, and then b
38、aked hard in a kiln.学校里使用的文字，长达3000年 Cuneiform was adapted by the Akkadians, Babylonians, Sumerians and Assyrians to write their own languages and was used in Mesopotamia for about 3000 years. Clay tablets were the primary media for everyday written communication and were used extensively in schools
39、. The Philadelphia Tabletfound near Baghdad, Iraq 3100-2900 BC Five thousand years ago the people of Sumer began to write. They were the first, and they began not with poetry or stories or great literature, but rather with economic transactions. This tablet is one of the earliest on record. It descr
40、ibes the transfer of 300 acres of land between two parties. As the city states of Sumer grew in size, an increasingly complex social structure called for more sophisticated techniques to record and store accounts of economic transactions. 古巴比伦和使用铁的赫梯 东方的阿摩利人入侵美索不达米亚后，以巴比伦城为中心，建立中央集权大国，史称古巴比伦王国。国中有苏美
41、尔人、属于闪族的阿卡德人和阿摩利人。古巴比伦的第六个王汉谟拉比时编纂的一部法典，刻在2.25米高的石柱上，石柱上的图画为太阳神沙玛什坐在椅上将权杖赐给站立着伸出手的汉谟拉比王。法典内容，有古老的同态复仇条款，却比苏美尔人的法典更完善。 古巴比伦时期，祭司们发现了二元一次方程的解法。苏美尔人在塔庙台上观测天象的事业被继承下来了，占星术、占卜术更加受到重视。 小亚半岛上崛起的赫梯王国存在于公元前1900年至公元前1100年间，它的北部有丰富铁矿，赫梯人最早开始普遍使用铁器，包括铁武器，还有骑兵。这些先进的技术使他们能够在公元前1650年洗劫当时西亚的文明中心巴比伦城。 古巴比伦被赫梯人洗劫后进入漫
42、长的衰亡时期 金戈铁马的亚述金戈铁马的亚述亚述人居住在美索不达米亚的北部。经常受北部游牧民族和南部巴比伦人的威胁，这个民族把自己锻炼成了一支好战且善战的力量,在战争中亚述人逐步建立了强大的军事力量：用铁剑、长矛、强弓硬箭、金属盾牌、头盔和胸甲武装起来的步兵；著名的尼尼微骑兵；战车兵、工兵和攻城部队。再加上投石机、破城槌和坑道战术、架桥技术、用皮囊渡水的 战术和奇袭战术，这支力量从公元前746年开始，几十年内摧毁了新月形地带和小亚的泥砖城墙，征服了手持青铜战斧的埃及法老军队，在近东第一次建立了一个军事大帝国。亚述帝国是把铁技术和军事技术很好地结合起来的一个例子。亚述有丰富铁矿，亚述人对铁的应用较
43、早，在帝国崛起的过程中亚述王还要求各个被征服民族把铁当做贡品，铁的应用加速了亚述军事力量的膨胀。亚述人统治时期，巴比伦的文化传遍了整个西亚和埃及。亚述帝国仅仅存在了100多年便销声匿迹了。今天生活在伊拉克的库尔德人和伊朗的亚述人，是古亚述人的后裔。亚述帝国版图亚述帝国版图新巴比伦的建筑和天文学新巴比伦的建筑和天文学公元前626年，迦勒底人趁米底人和埃兰人进攻亚述的时候同米底人结盟，共同摧毁了亚述的军队，在古巴比伦的土地上建立了新巴比伦王国。这个王国重建过的巴比伦城呈正方形，边长22.5公里，有100个青铜的门，幼发拉底河穿城而过，河上有吊桥，河下还有隧道。城墙里有三重围墙的王宫和底部每边长约2
44、00米的贝尔神庙。王宫中的空中花园就是希腊人看到的世界七大奇迹之一。迦勒底人统治巴比伦时期，在天文学方面取得了很大的新成就。这时在苏美尔人天文学的基础上规定七天为一星期，这七天分别对应日、月和火、水、木、金、土五大行星。还规定一天为12时辰，每个时辰为120分，每分120秒。这一计时体系成了今天人类计时方法的基础，后人只是把每天12小时变成24小时罢了。这一时期对天象和蚀象的观测继续进行着。公元前568年的泥板文书记录了如下的天文现象：“一日，水星出现。三日，秋分。十五日，晚，日落后四十分，月蚀开始。二十八日，日蚀。” 另外，从苏美尔人开始的对星座的崇拜也继续着。这些星神中有金星伊什塔尔，它是
45、自然界生殖力的女神；贤明的知识之神埃阿的儿子-农神玛尔都克是木星，并成为国神。除此之外，血红色的火星一直是战神，而彗星、流星和日月食的出现则预示着民族的灾难、瘟疫或者国王的死亡。既然星神掌握着人类的命运，那么人类的命运就会在星的运行中预示，天文学同时就是占星术，也是他们的未来学。Planet color god-goddess Week Sun golden Shamash sun right Sunday Moon silver Sin* Monday Mars red war Tuesday Mercury sky blue message WednesdayJupiter orange
46、marduk middle ThursdayVenus light yellow Ishtar love bellow FridaySaturn black agriculture Saturday Shamash is the sun god. He is also the god of truth and justice because he can see everything. Shamash holds a knife with a jagged edge so that he can cut his way through the mountains at dawn. Shamas
47、hs symbol is a disc, sometimes with sun-rays, or a winged disc. He was thought to travel in a boat, but from about 1000 B.C. his symbol became a horse, and later, a chariotMarduk is the city god of Babylon. When Babylon became the capital of Babylonia (from about 1500 B.C.), Marduk became more impor
48、tant. Marduk is sometimes called Bel which means lord. Marduks symbols are a spade and the Mushhushshu snake-dragon. Ishtar is the morning and evening star (the planet we call Venus), and the goddess of love and war. She is shown as a woman standing on a lion, generally holding several weapons. Isht
49、ar was sometimes thought to be the daughter of the moon god Sin. Since the lunar month usually has 30 days, Sins sacred number is 30. As Ishtar was Sins daughter, her sacred number is 15. 波斯帝国的成就波斯帝国的成就Cyrus the Great (559-529 BC) Cyrus the Great (559-529 BC) I am Cyrus, who founded the empire of th
50、e Persians. I am Cyrus, who founded the empire of the Persians. Grudge me not therefore, this little earth that covers my body. Grudge me not therefore, this little earth that covers my body. 波斯人统治时，西亚人修了长达几千公里的大道，还创建军事学校和普通学校，在埃及创办了一所医校，修通从红海到地中海的一条运河(后淤塞)。 在波斯帝国时期，天文学家算出了一年的时间,已接近发现岁差。这些成果都为希腊人制定历
