1、Lexicology词汇学词汇学LexicologyvA branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words. vAims at investigating and studying the morphological structures (形态结构) of words, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages. Relation with other disciplinesv
2、Morphology 形态学（structure）vSemantics 语义学 （meaning）vEtymology 词源学 （origin and historical development）vstylistics 文体学 （style）vLexicography 词典编纂学词典编纂学 （dictionary）v Lexicology embraces all the above. 主要内容v英语词汇学是一门以当代语言学多种理论为指导，全面深入研究英语词汇的专业课程。v课程的主要内容包括：词汇学习和研究的基本概念、英语词汇的来源和发展演变、构词方法、词义的变化、词义关系、英语成语等。Ch
3、apter OneA General Survey of English Vocabulary英语词汇概述Key pointsv1. word: definitionv2. Development of English Vocabulary (history)v3. Classification of English WordsWordvWord 与字？vDefinition：vthe two often quoted definitions from Bloomfield布洛姆菲尔德（美国语言学家教育家） and va French linguist, Antoine Meillet（梅耶，
4、法国语言学家） Bloomfieldv“some linguistic forms（语言形态）, which we call bound forms(限定/非自由形态) are never used as sentences. vBound forms: as part of a larger formve.g. boyish / childishvFree forms: occur as sentencesve.g. Fire!/ Help!/ Poor John/ John ran away.vA word is a free form which does not consist ent
5、irely of (two or more) lesser free forms. In belief, a word is a minimum free form.” (p. 1, para. 2)vThis definition emphasizes syntax(句法)， but does not touch upon meaning. Antoine Meilletv“A word is defined by the association of a given sense with a given group of sounds capable of a given grammati
6、cal use.” (p.2, para.2 )vMain criteria（标准） of a word:vSound, meaning and syntactic function （音、义、形）Definitionva fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning capable of performing a given syntactic function.（p. 2. para.4）v言语的基本单位和最小自由形态；它是声音和意义的结合体，能发挥一定的句法功能。
7、vWords are either spoken or written.(口头和书面)An ExamplevThe young man left quietly. vSound:vMeaning: vSyntactic function(句法功能): part of speech(词性)vThe: article冠词 young: adj. 形容词vMan：n. 名词 left：v. 动词 quietly: adv副词1. The development of English Vocabulary英语词汇的发展VocabularyvAll the words in a language： （p
8、.3）vThe building materials of a language.vImportant to have some knowledge of its development and growth. A: Historical perspective历史的角度vDevelopment of English and its vocabulary: v1. Old English古英语/ Anglo-Saxon盎格鲁撒盎格鲁撒克逊克逊 （449-1100）vEngland： Celtic（凯尔特语）/ 450AD，invaded by Angles盎格鲁盎格鲁, Saxons撒克逊撒克
9、逊, Jutes朱特人vVocabulary： 5000-6000 words，chiefly Anglo-Saxon/ some Old Norse古斯堪的那维亚语 vOld Norse words (are, they, their, them, till, call, die, give, take, skin, window, ill, weak)vLatin words: Roman contact (bargain, cheap, inch, pound, cup, dish, wall, wine)vChristianity基督教: abbot (修道院院长)altar圣坛 ca
10、ndle，templeMiddle English（1100-1500）vTransitional过度的：vFrench InfluencevNorman Conquest in 1066 诺曼底征服vEnglish for the mass and French for the rulersvVocabulary: vLoss of a large part of Old English wordsvAdoption of French words: vLaw and government: (judge, justice, state)vMilitary: (conquer, victor
11、y)vReligion: (confess, divine, sermon布道)vclothing: (coat, dress, gown, robe)vFood: (beef, pork, dinner)vArt: (beauty, image)vLiterature: (chapter, poet, prose)vScience: (medicine, remedy, surgeon)vThe core of the language: Still EnglishModern English(1500-present)v1. Renaissance: the study of the cl
12、assicsvLatin loan words science and abstract ideas (function, education, exist, scientific)vGreek words: literary, technical and scientific words: (drama, comedy, tragedy, physics)vFrench: caf, attach(专员)vSpanish： cigar, vanilla， cocoavItalian： concert, piano, solo, piazza. vPortuguese葡萄牙语: caste种姓制
13、度， pagoda 宝塔vGerman：zinc锌 vDutch：dockv Russian： vodka, tsar沙皇v2. Exploration, colonization and trade- borrow from non-European languagevAustralian： kangaroovArabic： sugar， alcoholvIndian： coolie, khaki vHebrew希伯来语: vChinese： yamenvJapanese: tycoonvAfrican: zebra, gorillaSummaryvThe English language
14、has vast debts.v80% words are borrowed.vLatin, French, Greek, Scandinavian languagesvPortuguese, Italian, Spanish, Dutch.vOther languages of the world.vResult: v1. Vocabulary extremely rich and heterogeneous 多样化的 （one million words）v2. synonyms and idiomsB: rapid growth of present-day English Vocabu
15、lary and Its causesvNeologisms(新词) after World War IIvReasons：v1. progress of science and technology科技v2. socio-economic, political and cultural changes 社会经济、政治和文化v3. the influence of other cultures and languages其他文化和语言的影响1.Marked progress of science and technologyvExamples:v1. Nuclear bombs: chain
16、reaction连所犯反应, overkill过度杀伤, medium-range ballistic missiles 中程弹道导弹v2. Exploration of Space: astronaut, countdown, spaceman, space shuttlev3. computer science: software, hardware, input, output, memory, monitor, data base2. Socio-economic, political and cultural changesvA. new social habits and new
17、living conditions: hire purchase(租购)， credit cardvB. Domestic habits: chores杂事, house sitter代为看管房屋的人 , house sitting, supermarketvC. Drug addiction药物成瘾: acid head瘾君子瘾君子vD. Student unrest: be-in(社交集会) love-in谈情说爱的集会gay/ homophilevE. internal political struggle in the US: Sit-in 静坐 swim-in 游泳抗议 teach-
18、in 宣讲会；座谈会（大学校园中就有争议的或重要的问题发表意见进行讨论）vF: Womens liberation movement: Ms, Chairperson, chairwoman, spokeswomen, saleswoman, feminism, sexism性别歧视 vG. Struggle of the black people: black studies黑人研究 black power黑人权利vH. changes in Education: open classroom, open university, vI. New Entertainment: call-in电
19、话交谈节目vJ. Sports: skydiving 跳伞运动3. The influence of other cultures and languagesvDiscotheque迪斯科舞厅迪斯科舞厅 vMao tai SummaryvThe development of sciencevthe rapid changes in societyvThe receptive and flexible nature of EnglishvResulted in a dramatic increase in vocabulary. 2. Classification of English Word
20、s英语单词的分类Three criteria 三个标准v1. by origin 起源v2. by level of usage 使用的等级v3. by notion 概念功能By origin: native words and loan wordsvNative words本族词:vWords of Anglo-Saxon盎格鲁-撒克逊 origin or of Old EnglishvLoan words外来词(borrowed words): vwords borrowed from other languagesvNaturalized or used as they are in
21、the original language. (p. 9)Native wordsvMost are monosyllabic (单音节的)vThe great majority of the basic word stock:v basic word stock基本词库: foundation of the vocabularyvAuxiliary and modal verbs: 情态动词vNumerals数词，pronoun代词，preposition介词，conjunctions连词(p.10, para.2)Fundamental features of the basic word
22、 stockv1. national character: 全国性v2. stability 稳定性（relatively）v3. word-forming ability: 构词能力v4. ability to form collocations: 与其他词搭配的能力Questionsv1.Are there more native words or more loan words in English?v2. which are used more frequently in everyday speech and writing?vBy origin, English words can
23、 be classified into_.By level of usage使用的等级v1. Common words常用词汇: （p.11）vwords connected with the ordinary things or activities necessary to everyday life.vThe great majority of English words are common words. vThe core of the common words is the basic word stock. vAppropriate in formal and informal
24、writing and speech.v2. Literary words书面词: vchiefly used in writing, especially in books written in a more elevated style, in official documents or in formal speeches. vcomparatively seldom used in ordinary conversation. vExamples: p. 12vForesee, outline vs. visualize, adumbratevFatigued, retired vs.
25、 tired, went to bedvIn English, most of the literary words are of French, Latin or Greek origin. vEveryday synonyms: P. 12 for examples: Among the literary words, two categories are noteworthy:vArchaic words: 古体词v words no longer in common use, although retained for special purpose. (They are someti
26、mes employed in poetry, business letters, etc.) ExamplesvAbed-in bed; behold-see; belike-probably; natheless-nevertheless; perchance-by chance. vArchaic word are marked as “arch” vdifferent from obsolete（废弃的） words. Obsolete words are those completely out of current use. Marked “obl, dated”vPoetical
27、 words: 诗歌词语vPoetical words are words that are traditionally used only in poetry. vArray-outfit; the deep-the sea; stead-horse; morn-morning;vSome words are both poetic and archaic: p.13 for examples.v3. Colloquial words口语词: vused mainly in spoken English, as in conversation among friends and collea
28、gues. They can also be used in informal writings ExamplesvFeeling fatigued, Tom retired early. (Literary)vTom felt so dog-tired he hit the sack early. (Colloquial)vJohn was dismissed for petty thieving. (Common)vJohn was fired for petty thieving. ( Colloquial )vSlang words: 俚语词vlanguage, words or ph
29、rases of a vigorous, colourful, facetious滑稽的, or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses, or derived from the unconventional use of the standard vocabulary.” Colloquial vs. slangvSome overlapvColloquial: not to be used on formal occasionsvSlang: not used in informal conversations, unl
30、ess the speakers are on intimate terms.vThe chief reason for the formation and use of slang expressions is to secure freshness and novelty. vBuzz- telephone callvKnockout-给人留下深刻印象的人；绝代佳人 vNuthouse精神病院vTo play hooky逃学vTechnical words: 专业术语vwords used in various special fields. vEvery branch of scienc
31、e, every profession or trade, art, and every sort of sports has its own technical terms.SummaryvSince language is constantly changing, the classification of words by level of usage is not absolute.QuestionvBy level of usage, English vocabulary can be classified into _.vA. common words, literary word
32、s, colloquial words, slang words and technical words.B. native words and loan wordsC. function words and content wordsD. original words and derivational wordsBy notion意念: function words and content words vFunction words: 虚词虚词voften short words such as determiners限定词, conjunctions连词, prepositions介词,
33、auxiliaries助动词, and so forth. vThey do not have much lexical meaning词汇意义 and some of them have no lexical meaning of their own;vThey have grammatical meaning. 语法意义. vThey belong to a relatively small and permanent set of words. vThe total number of function words is about 154. vContent words: 实词vWor
34、ds used to name objects, qualities, actions, processes or states, and have independent lexical meaning.vNouns, main verbs, adjectives and adverbsvContent words belong to an open list. Summary vFunction words: small in number, closed list, most frequently usedvContent words: large in number, open lis
35、t, low frequency of occurrence.Chapter summary vWord: vHistorical development of English vocabularyvClassification of English wordsChapter IIMorphological structure of English words 英语词汇的形态结构1. Morphemes 词素/语素Word va fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meani
36、ng (both lexical and grammatical meaning) capable of performing a given syntactic function A. Basic information：v1. The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms. vExample: denationalization民营化（word）v-de+nation+al+iz+action （five
37、morphemes）vA word may be analysable into one or more morphemes. vA morpheme is also a two-facet language unit which possesses both sound and meaning. vDifferent from a phoneme: 音素-k /k/,u/ju:/ va/ei, i/ai/vA book, I love him.vA morpheme is not identical (同一的) with a syllable (音节), either, since the
38、latter has nothing to do with meaning. vBoy, child-one syllable, one morpheme.vlady- two syllables, one morpheme.vCrocodile- three syllables, one morpheme.B. Allomorphsv语素变体/同词素的异形词v An allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sound. vExamples:vS in
39、 Books/s/, pigs/z/, horses/iz/vSuffix: 后缀v-ion/ -tion/ -sion/ -ation vInvent- inventionvDescribe-descriptionvJustify-justification, vmodernize-modernizationvExpandexpansion, vdecide-decisionvprefix前缀：im-/ir-/il-/in-vim-imperfect, impossible, imbalance, immobilevir-irresponsible, irregularvil- illogi
40、calvin inflexible, inexcusable2. Classification of morphemes词素的分类A: free and boundvFree Morpheme自由语素自由语素: is one that can be uttered 说,讲alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme(限定语素/粘着语素). vA free morpheme is a word, in the traditional sense. vE.g. man, faith, read, write
41、, redvBound Morpheme限定语素限定语素: cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance; it must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound.vE.g: un-unkind; -ly-happily; re-receive; s-dogs; exboxes; ed-worked. B. Roots and Affixesvmorphemes may be divided into roots词词根根 (or root morphemes根词素根词素) an
42、d affixes词缀词缀 (or affixational morphemes 词缀语素）Roots词根vA root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. vE.g. work, workable, worker, worked, workingvRoots are the cores of English words. Historically the root is the earliest form of a word. Root a
43、re either free or bound.Free roots自由词根vIn English, many roots are free morphemes. E.g. boy, moon, walk, blackvFree roots belong to the basic word-stock基本词库, and have the fundamental features of the basic word-stock. vA free root consists one morpheme. Bound roots限定词根vThey are not words, and so are n
44、ot free morphemes; they cannot exist on their own. Nor can they be used to form new words. P.24vtain- contain, detain, retainvceive- receive, deceive, conceiveSummary vA root, free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.vRevivevVitaminvVitalvvividAffixes词缀v An affix is a
45、 collective term for the type of formative (构词要素) that can be used only when added to another morpheme. P.25vAffixes, therefore, are considered bound morphemes. They may be divided into inflectional（曲折变化） and derivational （派生）types. P.25Inflectional Affixes曲折变化词缀vAn inflectional affix serves to expr
46、ess such meaning as plurality复数, tense时态, and the comparative比较 or superlative degree最高级. vInflectional affix does not form a new word with new lexical meaning when it is added to another word. Nor does it change the word-class of the word to which it is affixed. vThe number of inflectional affixes
47、is small and fixed; They have only their particular grammatical meaning. vPlural 复数: -s- es- vGenitive case属格： TomsvThird person singular present tense第三人称单数: worksvPresent participle现在分词: -ingvPast tense and past participle: -ed dvComparative: slowervSuperlative: fastestDerivational affixes派生词缀vWhe
48、n they are added to another morpheme, they derived a new word. vMany derivational affixes have a specific lexical meaning词汇意义; or more than one meaning. vE.g. p. 25vDerivational affixes have not only independent lexical meaning but also affective meaning情感色彩. vmis-/ mal-/vThere are also derivational
49、 affixes which can be attached to words of different word-classes. vv./ n. +able washable/ marriageablevThe number of derivational affixes, although limited, is much larger than that of inflectional affixes. vcommonly subdivided into prefixes前缀 and suffixes后缀:vPrefixes: affixes before the word are c
50、alled prefixes. vSuffixes: affixes after the word are called suffixes. vBoth prefixes and suffixes may be grouped according to: vTheir linguistic origin: Native affixes (are those that existed in English in the OE period or were formed form OE words.) and Foreign affixes (came as a part of loan word
