1、Outline:The scientistInformation and black holesHawking radiationDetection of black holesBets on black holes3 June 2006Hawking and Black HolesThe ScientistBorn 19421st class honours from Oxford, after “not very much work”Symptoms of ALS during Oxford yearsPhD and Research Fellow in CambridgeDiscover
2、ed Hawking radiation in 1974“A Brief History of Time” published in 1987Numerous honorary degrees and awardsOutspoken for world peace, welfare of the handicapped, and other current issuesAmyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis肌萎縮性脊髓側索硬化症 Also called Lou Gehrigs diseaseSymptoms:Difficulty standing, walking, or
3、runningClumsiness Frequent tripping or fallsDifficulty with fine hand motions such as buttoning, writing, turning a key in a lock Atrophy of hand musclesAtrophy of tongueDifficulty chewing foodDifficulty swallowing (dysphagia)Difficulty speakingMuscle cramp4Black HoleBlack holes represent the final
4、victory of gravity.A black hole is black because gravity is so strong that light cannot escape.The escape velocity at a distance r from the center of an object with mass M isr2GMvescapeThe escape velocity increases with mass and decreases with radius.If vescape c, then light cannot escape and we hav
5、e a black hole.Light rays5Space WarpsIf we imagine the spacetime as a “rubber sheet”, then any mass would produce warpings in it. Since black holes produce very strong gravity, spacetime is significantly warped (curved) around them. We see strong light-bending and gravitational redshift.6The Black H
6、ole RadiusFor any mass, there is a smallest radius beyond which the object becomes a black hole. This smallest radius rs is called the Schwarzschild radius.Hawking: This defines the size of a black hole, and it depends on the mass only.Anything smaller than its corresponding Schwarzschild radius bec
7、omes a black hole.2sc2GMr 7Dissecting a Black HoleA non-rotating black hole is particularly simple. There is a point at the center called the singularity (奇點). It has zero size and infinite density. In fact, its properties cannot be described by currently known physics.The event horizon (穹界) is a sp
8、here centered at the singularity with radius equal to the Schwarzschild radius of the black hole.What is inside the event horizon cannot be known by anyone outside because even light cannot escape out.event horizonsingularity8 Event Horizon and Singularity9No-hair TheoremHair here means something co
9、mplicated (e.g. different styles, colors, perms, etc). Black holes have no hair because they are simple.Only three things completely characterize a black hole (Hawking 1972): mass angular momentum electric charge10Under general physical conditions, the singularity is enclosed by the event horizon. I
10、nformation within the event horizon cannot be transmitted to the external world. We say the singularity is concealed or dressed. Those which are not dressed are called naked singularities.Mathematically, naked singularities can exist, but physical considerations suggest cosmic censorship: all singul
11、arities are enclosed (Roger Penrose).Hawking bet on cosmic censorship (and conceded too early in 1997). Cosmic Censorship Conjecture: Nature Forbids Naked Singularity11One way traffic in Nature?1. The disintegration of the egg will never happen in the reverse direction (re-integration).2. Air molecu
12、les diffusing out of the bottle will never progress in the reverse direction (infusion).Time Arrow12There is a very important law in physics, which governs the direction of any process in a physical system. This is called the second law of thermodynamics:The entropy of an isolated system never decre
13、ase.0SExamplethe reverse is not allowedbecomesSmaller entropy Larger entropySecond Law of Thermodynamics13If we throw complicated objects (with low entropy) into a black hole, where has the entropy gone?Where has the information escaped from the black hole?The Information Paradox14Four Laws of Black
14、 Hole ThermodynamicsBardeen, Carter and Hawking (1973) formulated the four laws of black hole physics, analogous to the four laws of thermodynamics.Second LawThe total surface area of black holes is always the same or greater than before.When we throw matter into a black hole, or allow two black hol
15、es to merge, the total area of the event horizons will never decrease.15timespaceArea TheoremThis implies that the surface area of a black hole is a measure of the entropy.If an object has nonzero entropy, then it has a temperature, and it must radiate! At first, Hawking himself could not accept thi
16、s implication.1617General Relativity andQuantum MechanicsGeneral relativity and quantum mechanics are two major achievements of 20th century physics.General relativity deals with the very large.Quantum mechanics deals with the very small.Physicists attempted to unify the two.18Hawking Radiation (197
17、4)When Hawking considered quantum mechanics, many of his ideas of black holes need to be changed.Black holes may actually radiate!Near the horizon, particle-anti-particle pairs can be created so that one escapes and the other falls in.Radiation energy follows the blackbody distribution.19In classica
18、l physics, vacuum means nothing exists. However, in quantum mechanics, vacuum is actually a sea of virtual particles.In quantum mechanics, there is a concept called vacuum fluctuations.Although the average energy of space is zero, local fluctuations of energy are allowed by the Heisenberg uncertaint
19、y principle.Energy fluctuations create pairs of particles and antiparticles (e.g. 2 photons). A pair can exist momentarily and is therefore virtual. They annihilate quickly. However, the virtual particles can become real, if the intense curvature of the spacetime of the black hole puts energy to the
20、 pair.Virtual Particles20Near a black hole, the tidal force is so strong that the virtualpairs are pulled apart. The two virtual particles can become real.Real Pairs Created21Since the photons can be formed outside the event horizon, they can be emitted away from the black hole. This is called Hawki
21、ng radiation.The Hawking radiation has a blackbody spectrum, with the temperature given byThe temperature is called the Hawking temperature. It decreases with the mass of the black hole.Hawking TemperaturesbhBRcTk422Einstein (on quantum mechanics): God does not play dice with the universe.Bohr (defe
22、nding quantum mechanics): Einstein should not tell God what to do!Hawking (on radiation from black holes): God not only plays dice but also sometimes throws them where they cannot be seen.Humour: Hawking Style23The energy needed to create the real particles comes from the gravitational field of the
23、black hole.Hence, the emission of Hawking radiation reduces the mass of the black hole. As the process continues, the black hole will finally disappear. This is called black hole evaporation.Small black holes have a large tidal force near the event horizon, and the creation of the real particles is
24、easier. Hawking radiation will be more significant.In fact, the time required for evaporation is given byyearskgMtevap312101010Evaporation of Black Holes24Black hole with mass aboutTime for evaporationA man10-12 secondsA building4 secondsThe Earth1049 yearsThe Sun1066 yearsA galaxy1099 yearsFor refe
25、rence, the age of the universe is about 1010 years.Typical Time of Evaporation25For most black holes, the Hawking radiation is too small to be detected.A black hole with detectable Hawking radiation must be very small, with Schwarzschild radius comparable to atomic nucleus. There is no real observat
26、ional evidence for this kind of black holes so far. These tiny black holes are called primordial black holes, which is believed to be formed in the very early universe.The emission of Hawking radiation reduces the entropy of a black hole. However, the second law of thermodynamics is not violated, si
27、nce we have to count the entropy of the radiation as well.Luminosity of Radiation26Hawking radiation suggests that black holes must have a finite temperature. The temperature of a black hole is given bybhsunbhMMT710The smaller a black hole, the higher the temperature, and therefore the stronger the
28、Hawking radiation.For the primordial black holes, the temperature is extremely high. Size Dependence27If light cannot escape a black hole, how can we ever find them?Improvements in observational astronomy render the detection of black holes more than a theoretical speculation.Nowadays, we have found
29、 many candidates of black holes. Many of them are X-ray binaries.Detection of Black Holes28天鵝座天鵝座X-1(雙星系統中的黑洞雙星系統中的黑洞)29天鵝座天鵝座X-1的發現的發現源頭範圍(早期)源頭範圍(修正)七十年代發現72年春，發現HDE226868射電源與X射線源亮度相關30確定天鵝座確定天鵝座X-1是雙星系統是雙星系統多普勒效應顯示，雙星系統周期為5.6日HDE226868的亮度變化顯示，星體因X-1潮汐力變長31高密度星體高密度星體?X射線可在極短時間內出現變化，顯示X-1并非中子星亮度變化受
30、光速限制，顯示X-1很小32高密度星體高密度星體?引用開普勒定律，顯示X-1質量超過7個太陽質量中子星質量最高不超過4-5個太陽質量X-1 不可能是中子星時至今日，已有95%把握確定X-1是黑洞33天鵝座天鵝座 X-1 第一個被發現的黑洞，約有9個太陽質量，所以定是黑洞。34世紀大賭博世紀大賭博索恩(Kip Thorne)賭: 天鵝座x-1是黑洞霍金(Stephen Hawking)賭: 天鵝座X-1不是黑洞35In 1980s, Thorne thought about wormholes, and Hawking thought about baby universes.If an obj
31、ect falls into a black hole, it could go to an independent baby universe.Science fiction? Can one travel to the past or another universe?Beware of spaghettification!Implication: there can be information loss in black holes.In 1992, Hawking concluded that the universe is “safe for historians”.Baby Un
32、iverses in Black Holes36In 1997, Hawking and Thorne bet with Preskill on the black hole information paradox.Hawking and Thorne: The information crossing into the event horizon of a black hole is lost to our universe; the black hole emits the same radiation regardless of what falls into it.Preskill:
33、The information will be eventually released.In 2004, Hawking conceded and admitted that black holes eventually transmit, in a garbled form, information about all matter they swallow.Preskill was awarded an encyclopedia of baseball, from which “information can be recovered at will”.Another Bet37Hawki
34、ngs contribution to the theory of black holes (structure, no hair theorem, radiation, information and entropy).Hawkings work is confirmed by experiments (Cygnus X-1).Hawkings openmindedness (bet concessions).Hawkings attitude towards life (adversity, science, humour).Hawkings eagerness to popularize science.Conclusion
