1、物理学与医学影像技术影像物理概论影像技术发展史 19th cn:X-ray(1895);Ra(1896);X-ray tube 20th cn:1910-1940 A ultrasonic;柯氏X光管;X-ray Machine;NMR(1946);1940-1960 超声晶片;B ultrasonic;-ray Camera(1958);影像增强器和X-TV;1960-1980 X-CT(1972);SPECT;PET;DR;MRI 1980-1990 彩超;螺旋CT;DSA;CR;Doppler;Spiral CT 1990后:医学影像技术分类 X射线成像 磁共振成像(MRI)超声成像 放
2、射性核素成像(RNI)可见光成像(内窥镜)红外,微波成像医学成像系统评价 原理与功能的不同 互补性 影响成像质量的原因 形态学成像与功能成像 对人体的安全性四大成像技术比较医学影像数字化 模拟:普通屏片系统,光学系统和电视系统 数字:计算机化的各种医学影像:CT,MRI,DSA,ECT 数字图像处理技术和相关成像后技术模拟方法和数字方法数字图像的识别 医学图像的识别:将图像与解剖,生理,病理作对照,捕捉图像中有意义的细节和特点,来判断是否有异常和病理性质。基础:正确的成像原理,方法与成像条件;计算机识别,数字化图像。图像识别的方法:灰度分割,色彩分割,边缘检测医学图像存储与通讯 医疗影像存储与
3、通讯系统(PACS,picture archiving and communication system)是临床医学、医学影像学、数字化图像技术与计算机技术、网络通讯技术结合的产物,它将医学信息转化为计算机能够识别的数字形式,通过计算机和网络通讯设备,完成对医学图像信息及相应信息的采集、存储处理及传输等功能,使医学信息资源共享,并得到充分应用。PACS也可以理解为多媒体电子病案管理系统的主要组成部分。它使临床医师能迅速、准确地获得所需要的医学影像信息及其相关的医学影像诊断报告、病历资料、病情记录、临床检查(检验)报告、治疗记录等信息,以及查询与该医学影像相关的多种影像设备的图像信息,以便对医学
4、影像做全面综合分析。展 望 模拟数字 单一 综合(TDIS),多参数,多模式 DICOM的普及,PACS 2D3D 新的成像方法X-rayA kind of electromagnetic wave,radiate with higher energy than those of visible light.Their wavelengths are from 0.01 Angstrom to 100 Angstrom.Discover of X-ray In 1895,a German physicist Roentgen discovered a unknown rays which ha
5、ve high energy and can not be seen by eyes but can transmit some nontransparent matters.Because people in that time didntt understand the properties of that ray,so named it x-rays,also is Roentgen rays.Before long x-ray photography was developed which is a revolutionary tool in medical diagnosis.He
6、won a 1901 Nobel Prize.Conditions of Generating X-ray Electrons with high speed Object used to block(stop)electrons stream Target电子(带电粒子)与物质的相互作用:碰撞损失 电离与激发 辐射损失辐射损失 散射和轫致辐射散射和轫致辐射Equipment of Generating X rayX-ray TubeLow Voltage Power SupplyHigh Voltage Power SupplyControl circuit:variable resisto
7、rTube currentTube voltagesketch mapStructure of X-ray Tube1.Glass Shell:It compose a highly vacuum glass envelope used to house the Cathode and the anode.Vacuum:P 1.02MeV(2me C)发生几率:当 hv1.02MeV 当 hv1.02MeV在医用X射线领域不太可能发生。ZhvP)ln(hvZPInterference Scattering(瑞利散射)入射光子与束缚牢固的原子内层电子碰撞时,不能使电子脱离原子,该电子完全吸收了光
8、子的能量后,从低能级跃迁到高能级,使原子处于激发态,原子回到基态的过程中就辐射出一个与入射光子能量相同的散射光子 比例很小Secondary Photons and Particle Rays 次级粒子与射线 When X-ray is interacting with matter,several secondary rays and secondary particles may occur with these processes.It includes the secondary X-rays(Characteristic X-rays),recoil electrons in Com
9、pton scattering and electron pairs.The energies of these secondary photons are often smaller than original photons.光子与物质作用的三种形式与光子的能量和物质的原子序数光子与物质作用的三种形式与光子的能量和物质的原子序数Z有关有关。从图中从图中可见能量低的光子和原子序数高的物质,以光电效应为主;中等能量的射可见能量低的光子和原子序数高的物质,以光电效应为主;中等能量的射线以康普顿散射为主;电子对生成主要发生在高能光子和高原子序数的物线以康普顿散射为主;电子对生成主要发生在高能光子和
10、高原子序数的物质中,但在能量极高光子作用下,较低原子序数物质中,电子对生成也不质中,但在能量极高光子作用下,较低原子序数物质中,电子对生成也不可忽视。可忽视。几种作用的几率 作用几率决定于X光子的能量与吸收物质的原子序数和电子密度 在水(软组织)中,对于低能X线,光电效应占主导地位(约占50%),对高能X线,则康普顿效应是主要的,瑞利散射相比是次要的。高原子序数物质,无论光子能量如何变化,都是光电效应占绝对优势。医学影像中所用到X射线以光电效应为主PX射线在物质中的衰减/The Absorption of X-ray 单色X射线在物质中的衰减IdxdI)(0 xeIILinear absorp
11、tion coefficientDifferent objects have different linear absorption coefficient.Although they are probably made of the same material.To compare the absorption ability of X-ray in various matter Mass absorption coefficient/mmmLLeIeII0033Zkm693.02ln21LmmmL693.02ln21 Half value layer HVL宽束X射线的修正 B,累积因子
12、Nn:原射线光子记数率;Ns:散射光子记数率xeBII0nsNNB1与吸收体几何结构,材料形式,与源的相对位置有关连续X射线在衰减 衰减规律:特点:在行进过程中强度变小,硬度增加xnxxnneIeIeIIIII0020121.21X射线的过滤与硬化 过滤可以改变X射线的硬度 滤线板铜铝滤线板:铝用于吸收铜的标识X射线锡铜铝X射线射线在人体内的衰减 人体的组成 混合物和化合物的质量衰减系数 化合物的有效原子序数iiPiiiZZ94.2194.2)(The Applacation of X-ray in Medicine Therapy Radiotherapy Diagnosis X-ray f
13、luoroscopy and X-rays roentgenography X-CTQuestion:what is the factor that determine the short wave limit of X-ray spectrum A.the atomic number of element of X-ray target B.the Tube voltage of X-tube C.the number of electrons from cathode D.The times of electrons receiving BremsstrahlungQuestion:For
14、 low energy X-ray,which interaction have most probability to take place?A.Photoelectric Effect B.Scattering Effect C.Pair Production D.Secondary Photons and Particle RaysChapter2 X-ray imaging这是第一张X射线照片,拍摄了伦琴夫人的手l895年底,年底,伦琴发表了伦琴发表了论新的射线论新的射线的报告,的报告,并展示了并展示了他的妻子的他的妻子的手指骨手指骨x射线射线的照片。的照片。成像原理 Differen
15、t tissue/organ have different absorption coefficient and density muscle(Hydrogen,Oxygen,Carbon)Bone(Ca3(PO4)2)The intensities of X-ray which pass through body are different(different attenuation in different part of the body)Different brightness on screen and different exposure in film.Zkm3mX-ray fl
16、uoroscopy X-ray imaging directly on a screen by fluorescence Conveniently Can study a dynamic process in the body Exposure time is longer Intensity must be kept lowX-rays Roentgenography A important diagnosis tool Imaging on a film Film must be develop and fixation Image can be kept for long time Hi
17、gh definition and cheap X线设备发展的三个重要阶段:1.常规荧光屏透视摄影 2.X线电视(XTV)透视摄影 3.数字X线摄影常规X-ray摄影装置 球管 滤线板 准直/遮挡器 滤线栅 增感屏 胶片Principle of Films2X2Ag2AgXhv Silver halide grain D:Optic density When the film is radiated by X-rays or visual lights,silver halides are deoxidized and silver grain appear.After being devel
18、oped and fixation,silver grain will be fixed.By this way,the different light transmission rate on the film come into being.Film used for X-ray roentgenography Protection layer silver Halide(silver iodide,silver bromide)and latex Fundus of film光密度/Optic Density 密度/黑度 黑度越大,胶片透光性越差,暴光量越大,身体相应位置对射线吸收越小I
19、ID0lg胶片特性曲线/Exposure Curve1 反差系数(斜率):D1212lglgHHDD横坐标:暴光量Re,mA.S表示2 宽容度(范围):线性部分范围Filtering Plate The filtering plate is used to change the distributive range of X-ray spectrum.Attenuate long wavelength X-ray and make the X-rays“harder”.Made of copper and/or aluminum,usually contain two layer,the fi
20、rst is the copper layer,behind it is the aluminum layer.Collimator 将射线限制在所需的投照位置上,避免了临近组织不必要的曝射。事先以灯光确定射野。Grid The grid is used to increase the the contrast on the X-ray photograph.The X-photons headed for and strike some other part of film,where they contribute to an overall background darkening an
21、d reduce the contrast.Intensifying screen Because X-ray can pass through the Film,there only small X-ray can be absorbed by film.So the exposure probably is not enough.For increase the exposure,Intensifying screen is adopted.Metal Intensifying screen Fluorescence Intensifying screen Metal and Fluore
22、scence Intensifying screenX-TV System Dispatcher Vision pickup tube ConvenientlyImage Intensifier Chang electric energy into light energy Intensify the brightness thousands times Contrast agent Structures in the abdomen are much more difficult to visualize(intestinal canal),because nearly everything
23、 is about the same density and atomic number Used to increase contrast between different portion in bodyContrast agent type 在原子序数高的物质中,由于原子序数对光电效应截面的影响超过光子能量的影响,无论光子能量如何变化,都是光电效应占绝对优势。而康普顿效应占比例很小。故在诊断中常用钡剂、碘剂作为造影剂,提高光电效应的几率。Barium(钡)is swallowed or introduced into the colon(intestines)to study eithe
24、r end of the alimentary canal.Iodine(碘)forms the basis for agents used to study the gall bladder,brain,kidney Urinary bladder.Air to articular cavitySpecial X-ray Photograph 软X射线摄影 40KV以下,光电效应截面大 由于肌肉与脂肪有效原子序数差异大,在光电效应截面上影响大,所以在软组织成像中光密度差异大。高千伏X射线摄影 高于120KV管电压时组织吸收以康普顿效应为主,受原子序数的影响和厚度影响减小。这种情况下空气,肺软
25、组织与骨骼影像密度差异不大,不会被骨骼阴影所覆盖,使软组织细节便于观察。Image quality of X-ray imaging Film used for X-ray roentgenography Exposure Unsharpness Modulation transfer function评价指标:对比度,模糊与细节可见度,信噪比,伪影,畸变决定因素:gamma correction Linear range Otherwise,affect contrastdttIntensityExposure)(模糊/Unsharpness Geometrical unsharpness
26、Film unsharpness Unsharpness from Intensifying screen Unsharpness from motion of bodyGeometrical unsharpness Because the size of focus(X-ray source)Different projection from different point in source interfere each other,enlarge the size of edge of image.Film unsharpness Unsharpness from Intensifyin
27、g screen ScatteringModulation transfer functionityObjectDensageDensitysponsImReDigital Image FundmentWhat is Image?ImageImage of objectMathematic FunctionPicturePhotic ImageContinue FunctionDiscrete FunctionInvisible Image图像与影像Digital Image?Since computers store data and understand data in a numeric
28、al form,we can say that an image is a numerical representation of a“picture”a set of numbers interpreted by the computer which creates a visual representation that is understood by humans.255 255 199143 97 18732 12 3423 22 11 244 198 179123 94 19532 43 5213 32 11253 217 23468 185 9713 12 2711 14 26G
29、raphics?Type of Image Color Scale Number File Format DimensionbinarygraycolorColor of ImageColor System(model)RGB模型HIS模型YIQ,YUV,HSV,CMYK,HSLTrue Color and Pseudocolor 24 true color and 32 true color Pseudoclor:The color we give to a image to show the information.in which different color level repres
30、ent different data.What is gray Gray Scale pixel values represent a level of grayness or brightness,ranging from completely black to completely white.In an 8-bit Gray Scale image,a pixel with a value of 0 is completely black,and a pixel with a value of 255 is completely white.A value of 127 represen
31、ts a gray color exactly halfway between black and white(medium-gray),and a pixel value of 64 has a gray color halfway between medium-gray and black.Scale Number Grey level We use grey level to represent brightness information in a picture.If one picture only have 2 pure colors:white and black,its in
32、formation is very limited.To show more information,we can adopt grey Image,that Usually is 6 grey scale(26,64 level)or 8 grey scale(28,256 level).256 shades of gray 4 gray scale 6 gray scale 8 gray scale Although Gray Scale images with bit depths of 2,4,6,12,16 and 32 exist,8 Bit Gray Scale images a
33、re the most common.This is for two reasons:1)its 1-byte-per-pixel size makes it easy to manipulate with a computer,and 2)it can faithfully represent any gray scale image because it provides 256 distinct levels of gray(the human eye can distinguish less than 200 gray levels).File Format BMP:微软Windows
34、设置的标准图像格式 GIF:Graphic Interchange Format图形交换格式 JPEG:Joint Photographic Expert Group TIF:JPEG2000:DICOM文件 计算机中存储图像文件的格式。Basic Conception of Image Brightness Intensity Contrast Gray(Gray Level)Definition Resolution Coordinate Hue Saturation Color TemperaturePixels are identified by their position in a
35、 grid(two-dimensional array),referenced by its row(x),and column(y).Coordinate SystemImage:Pixel array数字图像的形成数字图像的形成 信号转换过程 感知 抽样 量化图像感知和获取Example取样(Sampling)和量化(Quantization)Image Procession Technology 图像的点运算 图像的几何变换 图像的正交变换 图像的边缘检测与轮廓提取图像的形态学处理 图像的增强 图像分割 图像复原 图像重建 图像测量与分析1.对比度增强 灰度变换法 直方图调整法 Prod
36、uce higher contrast(对比度)than the original by:darkening the levels below m in the original image Brightening the levels above m in the original image灰度变换法 灰度变换法:这些处理方式都是针对原始图像的灰度变换法:这些处理方式都是针对原始图像的每一个像素直接对其灰度进行处理的,其处理过每一个像素直接对其灰度进行处理的,其处理过程主要是通过增强函数对像素的灰度级进行运算程主要是通过增强函数对像素的灰度级进行运算并将运算结果作为该像素的新灰度值来实现的
37、。并将运算结果作为该像素的新灰度值来实现的。通过改变选用的增强函数的解析表达式就可以得通过改变选用的增强函数的解析表达式就可以得到不同的处理效果,这类处理方法比较灵活方便,到不同的处理效果,这类处理方法比较灵活方便,处理效果也不错。处理效果也不错。灰度线性变换灰度线性变换Dot Operationf(x)=ax+b灰度的线性变换 a 是函数的斜率,b是函数在有y上的截距,当a1,输出图象对比度增加a1,输出图象对比度减小。a=1且b0整体图象变亮或变暗。如果a=-1,b=255,整个图象反转。Low dynamic rangeMedium contrast072.8571182.1430100
38、002000030000Full dynamic rangeGood contrast072.8571182.1430100002000030000may)a)f(x,m)/(b(ny)g(x,Gray Stretch非线性变换 分段函数 对数变换对数变换Log Transformations 指数变换指数变换Power-Law Transformations分段线性变换函数对比拉伸实例(幂变换)Power-Law Transformations 1直方图HistogramdDDdADDDADALimDH)()()()()1()()(DADADH Definition:Histogram of
39、 a digital image with gray levels in the range 0,L-1 is a discrete function h(rk)=nk rk:k级灰度(the kth gray level)nk:灰度级为rk 的像素个数(the number of pixels in the image having gray level rk)直方图(Histogram)处理 直方图拉伸 直方图均衡化 直方图匹配直方图(Histogram)处理是通过改变原始图像各像素在各灰度级是通过改变原始图像各像素在各灰度级上的概率分布来实现的。因此该直方图函数实际是图像的各灰度上的概率
40、分布来实现的。因此该直方图函数实际是图像的各灰度级的分布情况的反映,换句话说也就是给出了该幅图像所有灰度级的分布情况的反映,换句话说也就是给出了该幅图像所有灰度值的整体描述。通过该函数可以清楚地了解到图像对应的动态范值的整体描述。通过该函数可以清楚地了解到图像对应的动态范围情况,可以了解到图像灰度的主要集中范围。围情况,可以了解到图像灰度的主要集中范围。Low dynamic rangeMedium contrast072.8571182.1430100002000030000Full dynamic rangeGood contrast072.8571182.1430100002000030
41、000Histogram Stretch(直方图的拉伸)Histogram Equalization(直方图均衡化)直方图均衡化处理的中心思想是把原始图像的灰度直方图从比较集中的某个灰度区间变成在全部灰度范围内的均匀分布。对图像空间域点的增强过程是通过增强函数T(r)来完成的。离散图像直方图均衡化例 h(rk)pr(rk)离散图像直方图均衡化例3)计算图像各灰度级的累计分布S。pr(rk)kjjrkrpS0)(离散图像直方图均衡化例4)求出新图像g的灰度值。f gS)(255iSg255,.,2,1i离散图像直方图均衡化例 Example数字图像II图像平滑与锐化图像滤波 空域滤波 频域滤波E
42、xamples of filter kernels:-3 -3 -3-3 0 +3 -2 -2 -2 0 0 0-3 0 +3 -2+9 -2+3+3+3-3 0 +3 -2 -2 -2 horizontalvertical sharpeningedge detectedge detectfilter空域滤波Spatial FiltersLarger neighborhoods have more flexibility 利用事先定义好的在(x,y)的邻域的f的函数值来确定g在(x,y)的值。Masks processing 决定邻域的模板通常是二维阵列:3x3,5x5 The values
43、of mask coefficients determine the nature of the process.空域滤波的图像平滑与锐化 Image Sharpening(尖锐化)Image Smoothing(平滑)邻域平均法选择平均中值滤波*多图像滤波代数运算伪彩边缘检测平滑:锐化:Algorithm of Space Filter)22422(161JHGFEDCBAESmoothing FiltersContour Filters22)()()()(2JFGGDAJHGCBAESharpen Filter)22622(21JHGFEDCBAEKernel sizePreview wi
44、ndowFilter descriptionSmoothing FiltersExamples锐化Sharpening图像的边缘检测Edge and Contour Detection Roberts算子 Sobel算子 Prewitt算子 Krisch算子 高斯拉普拉斯算子 物体的边缘是由灰度不连续所反映的。经典的边缘提取方法是考察图像的每个像素在某个领域内的变化,利用边缘邻近一阶或二阶方向导数变化规律,用简单的方法检测边缘。这种方法称为边缘检测算子。Sobel 边缘检测傅立叶变换与频域内的滤波处理 频域 频域表示的意义傅立叶变换(FT)n傅里叶的重要贡献:n1、任意周期函数都可以写成不同频
45、率的正弦/余弦和的形式傅里叶级数。n2、任意非周期函数都可以写成正弦/余弦乘以加权函数的积分傅里叶变换。n傅里叶使整个工业和学术界空前繁荣。Flourier 级数展开式:(周期函数的频谱分析)sincos(21)(0000tkbtkaatfkkk220)(1TTdfTa220cos)(2TTkdkfTa220sin)(2TTkdkfTb k=0,1,2,3 Example 傅立叶级数展开的示例f(t)=1-10 t T/2T/2 t T2/02/0002)(2TTTTdtdtTdttfTa2/02/11010coscos2cos)(2TTTTndtndtnTdtntfTa2/02/1101si
46、nsin2sin)(2TTTTndtndtnTdtntfTbcos1 2|cos|cos22/12/011nntntnTnTTT=04nn 奇数n 偶数Example方波图例.)5sin513sin31(sin4)(111ttttf说明 系数a0:直流分量 基波分量 其余为谐波分量 指数的级数展开形式 用于周期信号的分析 周期增大,谱线间隔减小tbta1111sincos)sin()cos(jej指数傅立叶级数第n次谐波分量的复数振幅ntjnnntnjnntnjtnjnnnneAeAeeAatnAatfnnn11112121)(212)cos(2)()(1)()(0110非周期函数的频谱分析N
47、on periodic Function 将周期函数的周期扩展到无穷,谱线成为连续谱 频谱密度函数dtetfFtj)()(2/2/)(lim)(TTtjndtetfTF)()()(jIRF傅立叶变换与逆变换 用频谱密度函数表示时间函数deFtftj)(21)(正变换与逆变换dueuFtfutj2)()(u2dtetfuFutj2)()(一维傅里叶变换)(|)(|)(ujeuFuF 极坐标Polar coordinate形式:幅度谱:相位谱:功率谱2/122)()(|)(|uIuRuF)()(arctan)(uRuIu)()(|)(|)(222uIuRuFuP常用函数的一维傅里叶变换单位冲激函数
48、F()=1一维傅立叶变换的性质 线性 奇偶虚实性 频移特性 变换对称特性奇偶虚实性)(*)(*)(*)(*)()(FtfFtfFtf)()()()(XXRRf(t)是实函数f(t)是实偶函数,X()=0f(t)是实奇函数,R()=0f(t)是虚函数)()()()(XXRR|F()|一直是偶函数频移特性)()(Ftf)()(00 Fetftj)(21cos000tjtjeet)()(21cos)(000FFttf变换对称特性 傅立叶变换的傅立叶变换?)()(Ftf)(2)(ftF离散傅立叶变换 抽样信号的频谱 抽样定理 混叠抽样信号的频谱nsnSnFcF)()(信号在时域被抽样后,其频谱是由原连
49、续信号频谱以抽样频率为间隔周期重复而得到。抽样定理 一个频带有限的信号f(t),如果其频谱只占据-+的范围,则其信号分f(t)可以用时间间隔不大于1/(2fm)的抽样唯一地确定。能奎斯特定理频谱的混叠二维傅里叶变换函数 的傅里叶变换定义为计算 的反变换的到),(yxf dudvevuFyxfvyuxj)(2),(),(),(vuF dxdyeyxfvuFvyuxj)(2),(),(),(yxf二维傅里叶变换),(|),(|),(vujevuFvuF 极坐标Polar coordinate下的傅里叶变换:幅度谱:相位谱:功率谱2/122),(),(|),(|vuIvuRvuF),(),(arct
50、an),(vuRvuIvu),(),(|),(|),(222vuIvuRvuFvuPProperties of 2D FT图像的二维傅里叶变换二维傅里叶变换中的频移 通常在进行傅里叶变换以前用(-1)x+y乘以输入图像,此时傅里叶频谱被移中。频谱表示为:在计算机计算时,变换中心为:是函数的傅里叶谱是对称的:)2/,2/()1)(,(NvMuFyxfyx12/,12/NvMu),(),(*vuFvuF|),(|),(|vuFvuF图像及其傅里叶谱图像及其傅里叶谱频域滤波Frequency domain filtering 一、频域的基本性质:离散傅里叶变换公式:全场(full-field)变换?