1、1企业管理中的竞争和合作问题董志勇 博士 副教授北京大学经济学院博弈论2个人简介-原中国人民大学经济学院院长助理 副教授 经济学博士-2008年北京奥运会特许商品委员会首席专家-中国旅游纪念品委员会首席专家-欧美同学会会员(1998年)-中国宝鸡外国语学院客座教授(1999年)-新加坡华夏学院学术委员会委员(2001年)-欧洲维多利亚大学客座教授(2002年)-北京应用技术大学客座教授-吉林电力高级经济顾问(2002年)-吉林白城市人民政府经济顾问(2003年)-国联股份高级顾问(2003年)-中国人民大学侨联副主席(2004年)-中国井冈山干部学院兼职教授(2005年)3博弈论和策略行为Ga
2、me Theory&Strategic Behaviors4智猪博弈石头、剪刀、布田忌赛马麻将5Lecture Plan/本讲计划nGame Theory nStrategy&Payoff Matrix nDominant&Dominated Strategies nNash EquilibriumnMaximin Strategy&Mixed Strategy nStrategic Behavior 6Elements of a GameGame has the following elements:Players:who is involved?Rules:who moves when?W
3、hat do they know when they move?What can they do?Outcomes:for each possible set of actions by the layers,which is the outcome of the game Payoffs:what are the players preferences over the possible outcome?7Strategy&Payoffsn博弈论把人间一切竞争活动看成是玩策略游戏。这种策略游戏是在一定的游戏规则之下进行n它的两个最基本的概念是策略与支付矩阵n一种策略(Strategy)表示游
4、戏参与者的一套运作计划和手段。如“降价15%”就是一种策略n收益矩阵(Payoff matrix)是表示游戏参与者在各种不同策略下的利润额的一套支付表格n寡头垄断,尤其是双寡头垄断竞争,特别适合使用博弈论研究8Strategy&PayoffsnPrisoners Dilemma(囚犯两难)n两个嫌犯被捕并受到指控,但除非至少一人招供犯罪,警方并无充分证据将其按罪判刑n警方将他们分开审讯(不能沟通),并对他们说明不同行动带来的后果。n如果二人都不坦白,只能判简单刑事罪,坐牢1个月n如果二人都坦白,两人都会定罪,判刑六个月;n如果其中一个坦白,另一个不坦白;那么坦白者马上释放(从宽)、不坦白者将会
5、判刑九个月。n请问两个嫌犯该怎么办?9Strategy&PayoffsnPrisoners Dilemma(囚犯两难)n策略(Strategy):“沉默”&“招认”n收益矩阵(Payoff Matrix)如下:囚犯2沉默招认囚犯1沉默-1,-1-9,0招认0,-9-6,-610Strategy&PayoffsnPrisoners Dilemma(囚犯两难)n囚犯两难的问题在现实中常常出现。n比如两家企业的价格战。苏宁遵守协议违约降价国美遵守协议100,10030,130违约降价130,3070,7011Strategy&Payoffsn性别战博弈(The Battle of Sex)n一男一女
6、试图安排一个晚上的娱乐内容n选择(策略):“歌剧”、“拳击”;不过男女有别n收益矩阵(Payoff Matrix)如下:男(The Man)歌剧拳击女(The Lady)歌剧2,10.5,0.5拳击0,01,21213Strategy&PayoffsnOther Examples nCoordination games nSmith and Jones are trying to decide whether to design the computers they sell to use large or small floppy disks nBoth players will sell
7、more computers if their disk drives are compatible.nStrategies:“Large”or“Small”nPayoffs are as follows.14Strategy&PayoffsnOther Examples nCoordination games:payoff matrix琼公司大光驱小光驱施密斯公司大光盘2,2-1,-1小光盘-1,-11,115Nash Equilibrium(纳什均衡)nProblem of Nash Equilibrium:nInsensitive to extreme payoffs(risks)nEx
8、ample:Dangerous Coordination Game琼公司大光驱小光驱施密斯公司大光盘2,2-1000,-1小光盘-1,-11,1In Practice,it is almost sure that Smith wants to“play safe”and never try“large”!16Nash Equilibrium(纳什均衡)nProblem of Nash Equilibrium:nNon-existence of pure strategy Nash EquilibriumnExample:Match the PenniesnNo dominant strateg
9、y,no dominated strategy&no pure strategy Nash equilibrium as well!B正面反面A正面1,-1-1,1反面-1,11,-117Dominant Strategies(支配策略)nWe say a player has a dominant strategy if it is the strictly best response to any strategies the other players might pick.nIn the analysis of any game,the first step is to determi
10、ne if any player has a dominant strategy.nIf such a strategy exists,then the outcome of the game should be easily determined,since the player will use the dominant strategy and other players will subsequently adopt their best responses.nExamples:nDoes the Prisoners Dilemma have any dominant strategy
11、?nHow about the Coordination Game?18Dominated Strategies(被支配策略)nA dominated strategy is an alternative that yields a lower payoff than some other strategy,no matter what the other players in the game do.nA rational player will never use a dominated strategy in the actual action of game playing.Hence
12、 it can be eliminated.nIt is clear that if the existence of a dominant strategy implies that all other choices are in fact the dominated strategies.nBut it is possible that there are dominated strategies,while there is no dominant strategy19 B L C R U 3,0 0,-5 0,-4 M 1,-1 3,3-2,4 A D 2,4 4,1-1,8 App
13、lication:Iterative EliminationsnExample20Nash Equilibrium(纳什均衡)nEven though using a dominant strategy or a dominated strategy is a powerful simple way of“solving”a game,this kind of game is usually an exception,instead of a norm.nWe must have a generic method of finding the solution(s)of a game.nSol
14、ution ConceptsnNash Equilibrium is the very first solution concept for non-cooperative games.21Nash Equilibrium(纳什均衡)nEssence of Nash EquilibriumnA Nash Equilibrium is defined as a set of strategies such that non of the participants in the game can improve their payoff,given the strategies of the ot
15、her participants.nNo one has a strictly incentive to deviate from the strategies in a Nash Equilibrium.22Nash Equilibrium(纳什均衡)nExample nConsider the following game.Is there any dominant or dominated strategy?Player 2 L C R U 5,3 0,4 3,5 M 4,0 5,5 4,0 Player1 D 3,5 0,4 5,3 23Nash Equilibrium(纳什均衡)nP
16、roblem of Nash Equilibrium:nMultiple solutions!nExamples:nBattle of Sex nCoordination Game男(The Man)歌剧拳击女(The Lady)歌剧2,10,0拳击0,01,2JonesLargeSmallSmithLarge2,2-1,-1Small-1,-11,124Nash Equilibrium(纳什均衡)nMixed Strategies(混合策略)nA mixed strategy is a profile that specifies the probability of each pure s
17、trategy that is to be played.nNash Theorem:nFor any game with finite number of pure strategies,there always exists a Nash Equilibrium in mixed strategy form.25Nash Equilibrium(纳什均衡)nMixed Strategies(混合策略):ExamplesnCoordination GamenJones plays(Large,Small)according to(p,1-p)nSmiths expected payoffs
18、are:n“Large”:2p+(-1)(1-p)=US(L|(p,1-p)n“Small”:(-1)p+1(1-p)=US(S|(p,1-p)nSmith should be“indifferent”between the two choices nUS(L|(p,1-p)=US(S|(p,1-p)p=2/5 nHence Jones optimal mixed strategy must be(0.4,0.6)nExercise:find the optimal mixed strategy for Smith.nMatching the Pennies nFind the Nash eq
19、uilibrium in mixed strategies 26正常经济情况 旧厂 低价 高价 进入市场-100,-50 100,100 新厂 不进入 0,50 0,300 27经济萎缩期 旧厂 低价 高价 进入市场-160,-110 40,40 新厂 不进入 0,-10 0,240 28Nash Equilibrium(纳什均衡)nNash Equilibrium 不一定有效率The Centipede Game(蜈蚣虫游戏):In this finite game of perfect information,there are two players,1 and 2.The player
20、s each start with 1 dollar in front of them.They alternate saying stop or continue,starting with player 1.When a player says continue,1 dollar is taken by a referee from her pile and 2 dollars are put in her opponents pile.As soon as either player says stop,ply is terminated,and each player receives
21、 the money currently in her pile.Alternatively,play stops if both players piles reach 100 dollars.29Player 1Player 2Player 1Player 2Player 1Player 2SCCCCCCSSSSS11032297100999998101100,10030Maxmin Strategies(最大最小策略)nWhen each player in the game will select the option that maximizes the minimum possib
22、le profit(or other desirable outcome),we say that the decision rule is a maxmin strategy.nThis may happen in situations when the market is highly competitive and decision makers are risk averse.nSo this is a useful case for managerial decision making.31 32迄今为止,对市场结构分析都以假定管理决策的中心是谋求最大利益。但是在如垄断寡头那样竞争十
23、分激烈的场合,决策者可能采取一种风险厌恶政策,即确保在可能的最坏结果中得到最好的结果。也就是每个博弈者将在可能最少的利润方案中选择利润最大的方案。企业2无新产品有新产品无4,43,6企业 1有6,32,233(续)Nash 均衡为(3,6)和(6,3)企业2无新产品有新产品无4,43,6企业 1有6,32,2企业1 最小32企业2 最小 3 2结果:双方都没有新产品推出 在这个例子中,Nash 不是小中取大解!34Maxmin Strategies(最大最小策略)nAnother example:35Sequential Game(顺序性博弈)顺序性博弈:先下弈的优势(First-mover
24、Advantage)迄今为止,我们都隐含假定双方下弈者都是同时实施。在顺序(Sequential game)中,就是有先有后了。进入新的市场就是一个顺序博弈的例子。企业2 无新产品 有新产品 无 4,4 5,10 企业 1 有 10,5 7,7 36博弈论与企业管理中的权力游戏者票数权力指数权力指数(%)A101233.3B91233.3C71233.3D300E100F100总票数为31,16票通过37班扎夫权力指数(1965年):把一个决策者作为“关键加入者”的个数称为“权力指数”权力支持和票数不是一回事,票数只是一个虚数的指标!在设计具体的投票制度时,票数的分配要考虑权力支持,合适的选举
25、制度应该是:票数的安排要使得权力指数与人数成大体一致相同的比例!游戏者票数权力指数权力指数(%)A101433.3B91433.3C71433.3D300E100F100cabdea bdfa befa bda bea Bfacda cea cfacacdea cdfa cefa38企业管理中的权力票数权力指数权力指数(%)A121834.615B91426.923C71426.923D323.846E123.846F123.846总票数为33,17票通过多给A两票!看D:BCD AEFD 39联盟博弈:三人的财产分配假定财产100万A拥有50的票力B拥有40的票力C拥有10的票力规则,当超过
26、50的票任课了某种方案时,才能分配,否则三人将一无所得。在这个例子里,任何人的权力都不是“决定性”的,也没有一个人的权力为040此时,财产分配是按照5:4:1分配吗?如果是的话,C可以提出这样的方案:A7,B0,C3。这个方案AC可以接受,因为对他们是一个改进方案。但是,B也会向A提出这样的方案,A8B2C041夏普里值(Sharpley Value):在各种可能的联盟次序下,参与者对联盟的边际贡献之和除以各种可能的联盟组合。在财产分配问题上,我们可以写出各种可能的联盟次序。而边际贡献就在于在这个顺序中谁是联盟的“关键加入者”。如果是关键加入者,那么他的边际贡献就是100万元。42次序ABCA
27、CBBACBCACABCBA关键加入者BCAAAAABC的夏普里值分别是:4/6 1/6 1/6财产分配就是按照这个比例来的美国总统与参议院及众议院的权力之比:2.5:5美国总统与参议员及众议员的权力之比:350:9:2A50%;B40%;C10%43聪明的股东:51%为通过率股东股份(%)权力指数权力指数()A20620B20620C20620D20620E2062044股东股份(%)权力指数权力指数()A32620B17620C17620D17620E1762045为什么让再多减持一个百分点?股东股份(%)权力指数 权力指数()A361465.636B1629.091C1629.091D1
28、629.091E1629.09146对社会均衡的打破开始于殉道者!公共草地悲剧(Garrit Hadin,1968:Tragedy of Commons)47 乙甲不合作合作不合作1,15,0合作0,54,4 乙甲不合作合作不合作0,00,3合作3,03,3 乙甲不合作合作不合作1,15,3合作3,57,748人类的原始状态就是囚徒困境英国哲学家霍布斯:“自然状态中”“人与人之间象狼与狼一样”“是每个人对每个人的战争”他对自然状态的假定,就是要引申出他的政治主张。他认为,在这种原始状态下人的生活是悲惨的。为了摆脱这种状态,人们便汇集起来,建立契约,同意确立权力者或者权力集团,这就是利维坦。这就是霍布斯社会契约的思想。猴子香蕉道德49 乙甲战争和平战争1,14,0和平0,42,2 乙甲战争和平战争3,33,0和平0,30,0 乙甲战争和平战争2,21,0和平0,12,2自然状态惩罚状态国家状态505152535455