1、Lecture TenWords in UseOur speech varies between social situations.Speakers of English can talk to each other and understand each other pretty well,but no two speak exactly alike.Some differences are the result of age,sex,religion,social group,context of situation,and where and when the language was
2、 learned.Some differences can be found in word choices.The use of some words can be offensive or impolite.The speaker can choose euphemisms to replace words with offensive connotation.Moreover,in its historical development,a word may undergo a shift in meaning.DialectA dialect is a variety of a lang
3、uage that is characteristic of a particular group of the languages speakers.The term is applied most often to regional dialect,but a dialect may also be defined by other factors,such as social class.A dialect that is associated with a particular social group can be termed a sociolect.Regional dialec
4、ts may differ in the words people use for the same object.People take a lift to the first floor in England,but an elevator to the second floor in the United States.They get five gallons of petrol(not gas)in London;in Britain a public school is private,and if a student showed up there wearing pants(u
5、nderpants)instead of trousers(pants),he would be sent home to get dressed.If you ask for a tonic in Boston,you will get a drink called soda or soda-pop in Los Angeles.In addition,a freeway in Los Angeles is called a thruway in New York.A parkway in New Jersey is a motorway in England,and an expressw
6、ay or turnpike in other dialect areas.Social dialects are varieties of language used by groups defined according to class,education,age,sex and a number of other social parameters.For instance,older people may still talk about the icebox and the wireless but they are unlikely to know what is totally
7、 stoked.Women tend to use more expressions associated with tentativeness,such as hedges(e.g.sort of,kind of)and tags(e.g.isnt it?,dont you).Register and StyleRegister is a form of language appropriate to a specific situation.A register is a variety of language distinguished according to context,whic
8、h consists of the field of discourse,the relations between participants,and the mode of discourse.Word choice is one of the most obvious linguistic features among registers.The use of special jargon is characteristic of a register.A word may have a special sense when used to talk about a particular
9、subject.The legal register is unlikely to use some of the expressions in the linguistic register.For example,the word tone refers to the interval between the first two degrees of a major scale in music,to a musical pitch of the voice that serves to change the meaning of a word in linguistics,to the
10、color of a photograph in photography,and to the state of the body with respect to the health and vigor of its functions in physiology.In conversation,people tend to use vague nouns with general content,such as stuff and thing.Style is seen as the making of conscious and unconscious choices of certai
11、n linguistic forms and structures in preference to others.Different words and expressions can be used in different styles.Going for a job interview,you may say to a secretary Excuse me.Is the manager in his office?I have an appointment.When speaking to a friend about another friend,you may say in an
12、 informal way Hey,is that lazy dog still in bed?I gotta see him about something.Taboo WordsA taboo is a strong social prohibition against words,objects,actions,or discussions that are considered undesirable or offensive by a group or community.Breaking a taboo may result in embarrassment,shame,ruden
13、ess and even legal penalties.When an act is taboo,reference to this act may also become taboo.Some words may be used in certain circumstances and not in others.Certain words are considered taboo in all societies-they are not to be used or at least not in polite company.Forbidden words reflect the pa
14、rticular customs and views of the society.Words that are taboo in one locale may be acceptable in another,and vice versa.For instance,corset,breast,shirt,leg,and woman were taboo words in America in the 19th century but not in England.As alternatives to using taboo words we can either use medical te
15、rms or evasive terms.For example,the acceptable alternatives to piss are urinate,pass water,relieve oneself,go to bathroom,and even cover ones feet.In some contexts die is felt to be abrupt,and phrases such as passed away,departed this life are used to soften the fact of death.Other social contexts,
16、however,permit a more jocutar periphrasis,such as snuffed it,kicked the bucket,etc.Such alternatives to unacceptable terms are known as euphemisms.EuphemismsEuphemism is the practice of referring to something offensive or indelicate in terms that make it sound more pleasant or becoming than it reall
17、y is.The technique consists of replacing a word which has offensive connotation with another expression,which makes no overt reference to the unpleasant side of the subject,and may even be a positive misnomer.A euphemism is a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or serves to avoid frightening o
18、r unpleasant subjects.It may be either a new use of an old word,for instance,chest and limb as euphemisms for the mildly taboo breast and leg,or it may be newly coined to replace the taboo word,such as the nursery terms potty and wee-wee for to a childs excretory processes.Some euphemisms are involv
19、ed in genteel swearing.Terms of opposite sense are substituted for swear words,like heavens for hell or bless it for damn it.Some euphemisms are chosen to replace the taboo word by its sound,such as blooming for bloody,the deuce for the devil.There are many euphemisms in English for lavatory:privy,w
20、ater-closet,toilet,cloakroom,restroom,comfort station.Now,to avoid mentioning the backward or underdeveloped countries,we use developing countries,less developed countries,emergent nations,third world countries,etc.People with deficient eyesight are now often described by the phrase visually impaire
21、d rather than blind.The connotations of words tend to change over time.Idiot,imbecile and moron were once neutral terms,but now they are considered rude,used commonly as an insult of a person,thing,or idea.As a result,new terms like mentally challenged,with an intellectual disability,with learning difficulties and with special needs are used.A similar progression occurred with lame crippled handicapped disabled physically challenged differently abled.
