1、 -By Ke Xianbing 2006年8月20日Lecture I:Introduction to LinguisticsTeaching Syllabus for General Linguistics:nSection 1:Introduction:linguistics,language and major concepts in linguisticsnSection2:The sounds of language n Phonetics:the study of Speech soundsn Phonology:the study of sound systems and pa
2、tternsnSection3:Morphology:the study of word structurenSection4:Syntax:the analysis of sentence structurenSection5:Semantics:the analysis of abstract meaningnSection 6:Pragmatics:the analysis of specific meaning in general context Teaching syllabus for Applied Linguistics:nSection 7:Discourse Analys
3、is(the analysis of the information structure in general contest)nSection 8:Socio-linguistics (Language and society)nSection9:Psycho-linguistics (Language and mind)nSection 10:Cognitive Linguistics(Language and thought)nSection 11:Language Acquisition(First and second language acquisition)nSection 12
4、:Applied Linguistics(Foreign language teaching and learning)1.1 Linguistics:1.1.1 Definition of Linguistics:What is it?nDiscussion:Linguistics is“rich mens game”?n It is the game of everybody:n We use language every day.n We live in a world of words.n Nobody can live in a world of silence.n Hardly a
5、ny moment passes without someone talking,writing,or reading.nLanguage is most essential to mankind.nHowever,linguistics is not very familiar to many people n 1.1.1 Definition of Linguistics:What is it?nLinguistics:the scientific or systematic study of language.nThe subject matter of linguistics is a
6、ll natural languages,living or dead.nLinguistics,a pilot science,tries to answer the basic questions:nWhat is language?And How does language work?1.1.1 Definition of Linguistics:What is it?nLinguistics studies the origin,growth,organization,nature and development of language and discovers the genera
7、l rules and principles governing language.nIt employs scientific methods to observe,record and analyze all the phenomena related to language.nIt tries to explain how language has become what it is and why it works the way it does.nLinguistics has two main purposes.n 1.1.2 Linguistics vs.traditional
8、grammarnDiscussion:Linguistics is a new name for traditional grammar?nTraditional grammar is usually based on earlier grammar of Latin or Greek and applied to some other languages,often inappropriately.nTraditional grammar emphasizes correctness,linguistic purism,literary excellence,the use of Latin
9、 models and the priority of the written language.nBut Linguistics differs traditional grammar at least in three ways.1.1.3 Use of studying linguisticsnLanguage is an interesting subject to study on its own right,for the simple reason that every body uses it every day.n“We know very little about some
10、thing we are so familiar with.”nA lot of questions will arouse our interest in language such as-nFor a student of language:interest and importance.nFor a teacher of foreign languages:beneficial;nFor a researcher:displaying his abilities in three aspects.1.1.4 Scope of LinguisticsnMicrolinguistics:ph
11、onetics-phonology-morphology-syntax-semantics-pragmatics;nMacrolinguistics:sociolinguistics-psycholinguistics-neurolinguistics-cognitive linguistics stylistics-discourse analysis-computational linguistics-applied linguistics-n Linguistics may be defined as the systematic(or scientific)study of langu
12、age.nLinguistics tries to answer the basic questions“What is language?”and“How does language work?”It probes into various aspects of these problems,such as“What do all languages have in common?”,“What range of variation is found among languages?”,“Why do language change?”,“To what extent are social
13、class differences reflected in language?”,“How does a child learn to speak?”and so on.n A person who studies linguistics is usually referred to as a linguist.He does not need to be able to speak a large number of languages,though he must have a wide experience of different types of languages.n He is
14、 usually a skilled,objective observer,who takes great interest in analysing and attempting to explain various linguistic phenomena.His task is basically to study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built.Descriptions of the scope of linguistics n General linguistics co
15、vers a wide range of topics and its boundaries are difficult to define.n A diagram in the shape of a wheel gives a rough impression of the range covered.n Phonetics phonologymorphologysyntaxsemanticspragmaticssociolinguisticspsycholinguisticsCultural-linguisticsApplied linguisticsThe scope of lingui
16、sticsnIn the centre is phonetics,the study of human speech sounds.It is surrounded by phonology(sound patterning),then phonology is surrounded by morphology and syntax.Morphology here refers to the form of words and syntax deals with their arrangements.It is these two branches that form the part of
17、language which links together the sound pattern and the meaning.Semantics(meaning)is placed outside syntax,and next to the various disciplines which link linguistics with the external world.The scope of linguistics Around the central core consisting of phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax and seman
18、tics are the various branches of linguistics which are being rapidly developed at the present time:psycholinguistics(the relationship between language and psychology),sociolinguistics(the relationship between language and society),applied linguistics,etc.1.4.1 Phonetics(语音学)Phonetics studies speech
19、sounds,including the production of speech,that is how speech sounds are actually made,transmitted and received.the sounds of speech,the description and classification of speech sounds,words and connected speech,etc.n 语音学研究言语语音,包括言语的产生.也是研究言语语音实际上是如何发出,传播和接收的.它研究言语语音,言语语音的描写和分类,词和相关的言语等.1.4.1 Phoneti
20、cs(语音学)n Phonetics has three branches-articulatory phonetics(发音语音学),acoustic phonetics(声学语音学),and auditory phonetics(听觉语音学).Articulatory phonetics studies the human speech organs,and the way in which the speech sounds are produced.发音语音学是语音学的一个分支,从发音的角度来研究语音学,主要研究语音是如何由人的发音器官以什么方式怎样发出的.1.4.1 Phonetic
21、s(语音学)n Acoustic phonetics deals with the physical properties of the speech sounds;it studies the sound waves through the use of machines.n声学语音学是从声音本身的角度来研究语音学,研究从说话人传到听话人那里的言语声音的物理特征,主要依靠仪器对音波作出定量和定性分析.声学语音学从音高(pitch),音强(intensity)音长(duration)和音色(timber)四个方面来对言语声学作出分析.1.4.1 Phonetics(语音学)n Auditory
22、 phonetics is the study of the perception(感知能力)of sounds by the human ear.n 听觉语音学是从听者感受的角度来研究通过耳,听觉神经和大脑传递的对言语声音的知觉反应.1.4.2 Phonology(音系学)n Phonology studies the rules governing the structure,distribution,and the shape of syllables.It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as
23、the point of departure.A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning.n音系学是研究分配语音结构,分配规则,以及语音序列与音节形状.音系学通过将音素视作起点来处理语言的语音系统.音素是标明意义差异的最小语音单位.1.4.2 Phonology(音系学)n Both phonetics and phonology are connected with the same aspect of language-the speech sounds
24、.But they approach the subject from two different points of view.n Phonetics provides the means for describing speech sounds;n phonology studies the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.1.4.2 Phonology(音系学)n Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human v
25、oice is capable of creating whereas n phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning.The first focuses on chaos while the second focuses on order.n语音学是研究人类声音所能创造的言语语音,n而音系学却是研究组成语言与意义的语音集合.前者着重于无序,而后者则着重于有序.1.4.3 Morphology(形态学,词法学)n Morphology refers to the
26、study of the internal structure of words,and the rules by which words are formed.n Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words.It studies the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes.n Some words are formed by combining a number of distinct units of meaning
27、.The most basic element of meaning is called morpheme(词素).1.4.3 Morphology(形态学,词法学)n The following list shows that in English a single word may consist of one or more morphemes.n one morpheme relyn two morphemes rely+ablen three morphemes rely+able+ityn four morphemes un+rely+able+ity1.4.3 Morpholog
28、y(形态学,词法学)n In fact every word in every language is composed of one or more morphemes.n The above examples tell us while some morphemes like girl and rely can constitute words by themselves,others like-ish and able are never words but always part of words.Thus un-is like-dis(dislike,disarm)and occur
29、s only before other morphemes.Such morphemes are called prefixes.n Other morphemes occur only as suffixes,i.e.,only after other morphemes.Examples of such morphemes are or(actor),-er(reader),and ful(careful),to mention a few.1.4.4 Syntax(句法学)n Syntax is the study of how sentences are structured or i
30、n other words,it tried to state what words can be combined with others to form sentences and in what order.n 句法是关于正确英语句子形成与理解的规则.句子的形式或结构是受句法规则支配的.这些规则详细解释词序,句子结构,以及词,词类与其它句子成分之间的关系.1.4.5 Semantics(语义学)n In linguistics,semantics is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language.n It is
31、not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items,but also with levels of language below the word and above it.n 语义学验应意义在语言中是如何编码的.它不仅是关注词义,涉及诸如词汇项的词义,而且还涉及词汇层上下的语言层面,如词素和句子的意义.1.4.6 Pragmatics(语用学)Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context.Pragmatics is concerned with the way language i
32、s used to communicate rather than with the way language is structured.n 语用学是研究语境中的意义.它处理特定情境中的特殊话语,特别涉及的是语言运用的诸多社会语境可能影响意义解释的不同途径.1.4.6 Pragmatics(语用学)n 换言之,语用学涉及的是语言用于交际的方式,而非构建的方式.n 语用学将言语运用主要看作受各种社会规约限定的社会行为.有如下主要概念,所指,言外之意,效果和合作原则.n 以会话为例,语言主要主要是通过言语模式进行传播,所以语用规则支配了一系列的会话交际,诸如序列构造,错误修补,话语保持与话语结束
33、,语题的建立与保持等.n The list of linguistics above should have shown at least one thing:linguistics is not only something about grammar.It is certainly true that grammar is an important part of linguistics,but linguistics deals with many other things,too.Since linguistics has a very wide scope which overlap
34、s with many other subjects and fields,it is becoming more and more interdisciplinary.1.2 What is language?nWhat do we mean by the word language?n A.English is not my native language.n B.I was hurt by his language.n C.Many people think that black people speak bad language.n D.He is using language of
35、diplomacy.n E.心灵美心灵美,语言美语言美,行为美行为美,环境美。环境美。n F.Professor Li studies language.n G.I like Shakespeares language.n H.Language is the crust of mind.n I.You should use formal language in your report.n J.Chinese is quite different from European languages.1.2What is language?nThe reasonable categorization
36、might be:nA.English is not my native language.nB.I was hurt by his language.nC.Many people think that black people speak bad language.nD.He is using language of diplomacy.nE.心灵美心灵美,语言美语言美,行为美行为美,环境美。环境美。nF.Professor Li studies language.nG.I like Shakespeares language.nH.Language is the crust of mind
37、.nI.You should use forma language in your report.nJ.Chinese is quite different from European languages.1.2 What is language?nLanguage is a set of rules.nLanguage is a tool for human communication.nLanguage is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas,emotions and desires by me
38、ans of voluntarily produced symbols.nLanguage is a system of symbols designed for the purpose of human communication.nLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.The characteristics of language1.Language as system-The key word in the definition is system.Language is
39、systematic.Otherwise we would not be able to learn or use it consistently.Each language system contains two subsystems:a system of sound and a system of meaning.2.Language as arbitrary-There is no natural relationship between the sound and what it means in a certain language.we cannot predicate exac
40、tly what specific features we will find in a particular language if we are not familiar with it.3.Language as vocal-By vocal we mean that the primary medium of all languages is sound,no matter how well developed their writing system might be.The characteristics of language4.Language as symbol-Langua
41、ge is just symbol for the thing it refers.Language is a symbolic system.5.Language as human-Language is human-specific,it is very different from animal communication systems.No system of animal communication makes use of the design features of human language 6.Language as communication-Language is u
42、sed for communication.It allows people to say things to each other and express their communicative needs.The Elements of LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.n Explanation for the words:nArbitrary:Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no int
43、rinsic connection between the word pen and the thing we use to write with.The fact that different languages have different words for it(bi in Chinese for instance)speaks strongly for the arbitrary nature of language.n Explanation for the words:symbolic and vocalnThis also explains the symbolic natur
44、e of language:words are associated with objects,actions,ideas by convention.This is why some people say“A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”.n We say language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages,no matter how well developed are their writing systems.1.2 Design fe
45、atures n 1.2.1 Arbitrariness（任意性）n As mentioned earlier,by“language is arbitrary”,we mean that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.There is no reason why we should use the sounds/dog/to denote the animal“dog”,or/pig/to refer to the animal”pig”.n由索绪尔最早论及任意性的这种特征被广泛接受由索绪尔最早论及任意性
46、的这种特征被广泛接受的意义是指语言符号形式与其意义之间不存在着任的意义是指语言符号形式与其意义之间不存在着任何自然关系。比如：我们无法解释为什么何自然关系。比如：我们无法解释为什么book（书）被称为（书）被称为/buk/,pen（笔）被称为（笔）被称为/pen/.Exemplification:The Tragedy Of Romeo And Juliet nJuliet:Wherefore art thou ROMEO?Deny thy father and refuse thy name!nThis but thy name that is my enemy.Thou art thyse
47、lf,though not a Montague.Whats in a name?That which we call a rose by any other name would smell as sweet.So ROMEO would,were he not ROMEO calld,Retain that dear perfection which he owes.Without that title.ROMEO,doff thy name,And for that name,which is no part of thee,Take all myself.(Montague-Romeo
48、,Capulet-Juliet)nRomeo:I take thee at thy word.Call me but love,and Ill be new baptizd,Henceforth I never will be Romeo.Monologue by JulietExemplification:The Tragedy Of Romeo And JulietnJuliet:哦！Romeo,你在哪里？否认你的父亲，放弃你的姓氏，记住你的姓氏是我的仇敌，你若不姓Montague,你依然还是你，Montague是什么？不是手，不是脚，不是臂，不是脸，也不是身体其他的任何部位。哦！换一个姓
49、吧！姓算什么！我们所谓的玫瑰换个名字还是一样的芳香！哦！Romeo,放弃你的姓氏吧！那姓氏不是你的一部分，为了弥补你的损失，去把我整个拿去吧！nRomeo:我就照你的话去做，只要你把我称作你的爱人！我就会取个新的名字，以后我再不是Romeo.n However,language is not entirely arbitrary,there are cases where there are seems to be some association between sounds and meaning.n There are certain words in every language wh
50、ich imitate natural sounds,suchnas bang,crash,and roar in English,dingdang(叮当），kacha（喀嚓），putong（扑通）in Chinese.They are called onomatopoeic words.n They only make up a small percentage of the vocabulary in a language.Questions for discussion n1.What does“language”mean?n2.Would you say that language i
