1、Chapter 7 Language ChangeLecturer:Young Smith7.1 Introdution The nature:As a general rule,language change is universal(普遍的),continuous(持续的)and,to a considerable degree,regular(规则的)and systematic(系统的).All languages change with time Language is like a living organism,it may change and grow,but rather
2、slowly1、Sound(Phonological)change 语音变化2、Morphological and synatctic change形态变化和句法变化3、Lexical and semantic change词法和语义变化“Prologue(序言序言)to the Canterbury Tales坎坎(特伯雷故特伯雷故事集事集)by Chaucer 乔叟乔叟(English poet,1340-1400)(1)A knyght ther was and that a worhy man,That fro the tyme that he first bigan To riden
3、 out,he loved chivalrie,Trouthe and honour,fredom and curteisie A knight there was and that a worthy man That from the time that he first began To ride our,he loved chivalry(骑士气概骑士气概),Truth and honour,freedom and courtesy.(2)Whan that Aprille with his shoures sooth When that April with his showers s
4、weetHamlet from Shakespeare(1564-1616)King:Where is Pelonius Hamlet:In heaven,send thither(there)to see.If your messenger(cant)find him not there,seek him I(at)the other place yourself.But indeed,if you find him not within this month,you shall nose(notice)him as you up the stairs into the lobby.Lang
5、uage changes occur during the 1500 years of English history Changes can be found in all parts of grammar:phonology,morphology,syntax,lexicon,semantic items1500-year history of English Old English 450-1100 A.D just as difficult as another language,unintelligible Middle English 13001400 more like mode
6、rn English(Chaucers time),need special instruction Early Modern English 15001600 (Shakespeares time)need help,word order,meanings Modern English 1700-1900 Contemporary English the past 50 years (The Encyclopedia Britannica Yearbook:a list of words that have entered the language during the year)7.2 P
7、honological(Sound)change Old English Modern English (arm)stn stone hm home wrt wrote rd rode Middle English Modern English mi:s mais mice mu:s maus mouse br:k brk brokeConclusions:Sound change is systematic:a regular pattern of pronunciation changes Dramatic vowel changes took place in both old Engl
8、ish and middle English7.3 Morphological and syntactic change7.3.1 Addition of affixes-ment(French origin)Accomplishment(French word)Acknowledgement(English origin)FushionA type of grammaticalization in which words develop into affixes,either prefixes or suffixes.Wifmann (woman was masculine)Wif (neu
9、ter)7.3 Morphological and syntactic change7.3.2 Loss of affixesS O VS V O7.3 Morphological and syntactic change7.3.3 change of word orderI love thee not.He saw you not.I dont love you.He didnt see you.7.3 Morphological and syntactic change7.3.4 Change in Negation Rule7.4 Lexical and Semantic ChangeA
10、ddition of new wordsLoss of wordsChanges in the meaning of words7.4.1 Addition of new words the most common word-formation process,by affixation eg.Derivational+free morphemes girlish;reliable;glorification insurmountable(stringing words together;juxtaposition of two or more than two words to form a
11、 new,composite one with distinct properties of its own)Adj.N.V.Prep.Adj.Bittersweet clearway whitewash blackoutN.Headstrong rainbow spoon-feed head-onV.Carryall pickpocket sleepwalk cutupPrep.Inborn off-licence undertake without Hard disk mousemat bar code fat-freeInformation highway follow-up full-
12、lengthBitter-sweet get-rich-quick7.4.1 Addition of new words 创新构词(invention of totally new terms,least common,often brand names)eg.xerox;nylon;kleenex(面巾纸)walkman;Kodak;Ford7.4.1 Addition of new words (a reduction process in which a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form/abbrevi
13、ation of longer words or phrases;often used in informal speech)Eg.ad-advertisement;lab-laboratory fan-fanatic;flu-influenza;math-mathematics;gymgymnasium expo-exposition;memo-memorandum disco-discotheque;burger-hamburger dozer-bulldozer;quake-earthquake fridge-refrigerator;script-prescription7.4.1 A
14、ddition of new words(join the beginning of the first word to the end of the other words)Eg.smog (smoke+fog)brunch(breakfast+lunch)motel(motor+hotel)telecast(television+broadcast)camcorder(camera+recorder)comsat(communication+satellite)videophone(video+telephone)7.4.1 Addition of new words(string tog
15、ether the initial letters of the words in a phrase,typically the names of technical apparatus and institutions,sometimes,the phrasal origin is lost)Eg.radar(radio detecting and ranging)AIDS(acquired immune deficiency syndrome)SARS(Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome)APEC(Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperat
16、ion)UNESCO(United Nations Educational,Scientific,and Cultural Organization)CBS(Columbia Broadcasting System)ISBN(International Standard Book Number)IT(information Technology);CAD(computer assisted design)WTO(World Trade Organization)7.4.1 Addition of new words 反向构词(a reverse process of affixation.Th
17、e word is not formed by adding a morpheme to a stem but by assuming a part of the stem as a suffix and removing it/subtracting an affix thought to be part of the old word)Eg.editor-edit;beggar-beg television televise;enthusiasm-enthuse hawk-hawker;baby-sit-baby-sitter butch-butcher7.4.1 Addition of
18、new words/functional shift 转类构词(a change in the grammatical function of a word without adding or removing any part of it/shift from one part of speech to another without addition of affixes)Eg.N.V.a walk-to walk;a play-to play increase-to increase;conduct-conduct V.-N.to hold-a hold;to flyby-a flyby
19、;to reject-a reject adj.-V.cool-to cool;narrow-to narrow;dim-to dim;slow-to slow adj.-N.daily-a daily;Christian-a Christian rich-the rich;impossible-the impossible I have no knowledge of the political dos and donts7.4.1 Addition of new words(adopting foreign words)-loan-words借词(retaining their origi
20、nal phonetic or even written forms,label a new concept,replace or become a synonym of a native word)eg.bungalow(Hindi);spaghetti(Italian);veranda(Portuguese 阳台)-loan-translation or calques(直译,译借)仿造词(a direct translation of the foreign word into English)eg.Kongfu(Chinese)pp.100101 for more words7.4.1
21、 Addition of new wordsConclusionsFood and cooking words in Middle English(borrowed from French);eg.salmon,appetite,dinner,supper,beef pork,sardine,muttonTechniques and food words imported in later borrowings;eg.crme,sautee,bouillon,consommeNot all loan words become immediately assimilated into a lan
22、guage,esp.technical termsEg.fungus-fungi;memorandum-memoranda nebula-nebulae;radiu-radii7.4.2 Loss of words Words can be lost from a language over the course of several generations,because of discontinuation of the object they name Eg.Romeo and Juliet by Shakespeare beseem -to be suitable wot -to kn
23、ow gyve -a fetter wherefore -whyEg.soap flakes;wash board;rumble seat7.4.3 Semantic Changes Words may shift in meaning Semantic changes:widening,narrowing,shift in meaning Widening of meaning:meaning of a word becomes broader Eg.holiday holy day:a day of religious significance any day on which we do
24、nt have to workEg.tailthe tail of a horse-the tail of any animalEpaniona person with whom you shred bread a person who accompanies youEg.quarantineforty days isolation-a condition of enforced isolationEg.bird young bird-no restrictionEg.sail boat with sails-no restrictionConclusion:specific -general
25、 Semantic broadening Narrowing of meaning:meaning of a word is narrowed to what it is nowEg.hounddog-a special kind of dogEg.girlyoung person of either sex-young people of female sexEg.deerany animal-a particular kind of animalEg.meatfood-edible part of an animalEg.corngrain-a particular grainConclu
26、sion:general-specific7.4.3 semantic narrowing Meaning shiftEg.innold small hotel or pub-well-known nice hotelEg.niceignorant-goodEg.lustpleasure-Intense or unrestrained sexual cravingEg.immoralnot customary-Contrary to established moral principlesEg.sillyhappy-(nave)-foolishConclusion:meaning may be
27、 elevated(抬升)or degraded(降格)Semantic shift7.5 Some recent trends1 Moving towards greater informalityEg.aint,dont,cant;its me;who did you see?Bus notice in LondonPlease do not speak to the driver while he is driving Passengers are required not to communicate with the driver while the vehicle is in mo
28、tion.2.The infulence of American English Eg.petrol(BE)gasoline(AE)autumn(BE)-fall(AE)lift(BE)-elevator(AE)pavement(BE)-sidewalk(AE)teenager(AE)commuter(AE)to update(AE)to bring up to date to host(AE)-to be host at to check up(AE)-to checkConclusion:American English has a strong influence upon Britis
29、h English by movies,newspapers,magazines,radios,television 7.5 Some recent trends3.the influence of science and technologyNew words are coined to express new concepts,new techniques and new inventions Space travel eg.space suit;splash-downComputer and internet language eg.inputEcology eg.ecocide pp.
30、105106 for more wordsConclusion:Science and technology has a strong influence upon English7.5 Some recent trends7.6 The Causes for language change Why:Grammatical rules may seem very strict,but the rules do permit slight variations that do not make a great deal of difference in meaning,when variatio
31、ns of grammar,vocabulary,and pronunciation accumulate through the centuries,languages within a single language family become quite different from one anotherRapid development of science and technology leads to new wordsEg.bullet train,fax,laser printer,eurostar,hovercraft,CD-ROM,laptop,telecom,DVD,e
32、-mail,cybernautCauses for language changeSocial and political changes and political needsEg.shuttle diplomacy,mini-summit,jungle war,Euro,hot line,DVD,eyephone,e-mail,bi-media,golden weekCauses for language changeMore neutral job titles due to feminismEg.chairman-chairperson foreman-supervisor polic
33、eman-police officer fireman-fire fighter jury foreman-jury forepersonCauses for language changeThe way children acquire the language language used by children shows stages in the development of their grammar;Certain rules may be simplified or over-generalized when children approximate grammar used b
34、y adultsEg.Its I.-Its me.Causes for language changeGrammar simplification due to economy of memory or linguistic laziness or theory of least effort:analogic change internal borrowing:we borrow from one part of the grammar and apply the rule generallyEg.foe-foes;dog dogs;cow-cows kine regularization
35、of exceptional plural formsEg.agendum-agenda-agendums curriculum-curricula-curriculums dwarf-dwarves-dwarfsEg.pat wanted to buy a cheap car.-Cathy got it cheap.cheaplyCauses for language change Elaboration or complication of grammar:if a particular grammatical feature is lost,some feature may be add
36、ed in another component of the grammarEg.inflectional endings-strict word-order constraints who-whom greater simplification-be more intelligible black-blacken(causative verb from adj,)-cause to be blackCauses for language changeSummary1.No single cause of language change,2.Lexical addition,borrowing,simplification of grammar,elaboration3.Linguistic change is complex rather than simple to describe,need further investigation
