1、2022-12-221异构现象异构现象 构造异构构造异构 立体异构立体异构 骨架异构骨架异构 官能团异构官能团异构 官能团位置异构官能团位置异构 构型异构构型异构 构象异构构象异构 顺反异构顺反异构 对映异构对映异构2022-12-222(一)一)对映异构体和手性对映异构体和手性:1.对映异构体对映异构体(enantiomers):如两个分子具有对映,而不能如两个分子具有对映,而不能重叠的关系,为对映异构体。重叠的关系,为对映异构体。一一.对映异构现象对映异构现象(Enantiomerisms):2022-12-2232.有对映异构体的分子被称为手性分子有对映异构体的分子被称为手性分子 (Ch
2、iral Molecular)CIClHBrCIHClBr手性分子(chiral molecule)CClHCH3CH3HCClCH3CH3非手性分子(achiral molecule)不重合不重合重合重合mirror2022-12-224 3.如何判断分子是否是对映异构体如何判断分子是否是对映异构体:a.手性碳(手性碳(Chiral Center)CZXYW*b.分子中是否分子中是否 含有对称因素含有对称因素:1。对称面:对称面:2。对称轴:对称轴:3。对称中心:。对称中心:一个分子如具有对称面一个分子如具有对称面,或对称中心或对称中心,或对称轴或对称轴,则这个分子无则这个分子无手性手性-非
3、手性分子非手性分子(Achiral molecule)2022-12-225许多许多含有手性中心的分子不是手性的含有手性中心的分子不是手性的.(.(例外例外:meso)许多许多手性分子不含有手性中心手性分子不含有手性中心.(.(例外例外:联苯型联苯型,丙二烯型丙二烯型)手性中心的存在与否不是手性中心的存在与否不是唯一唯一判断手性分子的标准判断手性分子的标准2022-12-226(二)二)对映异构体的表示法:对映异构体的表示法:Fischer Projection:把立体的结构式用平面表示出来把立体的结构式用平面表示出来向前向前-横向横向向后向后-纵向纵向2022-12-227R/S标记法(标记
4、法(Designation of R/S):):将与手性碳相连的四个原子或基团按将与手性碳相连的四个原子或基团按次序规则次序规则排列出排列出基团的大小基团的大小abcd,将最小的基团,将最小的基团d离观察者最远。离观察者最远。其它三个基团按其它三个基团按abcbc的顺序。如果是顺时针,称的顺序。如果是顺时针,称为为R(Rectus拉丁文拉丁文“右右”字的字首)构型;逆时针,字的字首)构型;逆时针,称为称为S(Sinister拉丁文拉丁文“左左”字的字首)构型。字的字首)构型。bcdabcdabcdaabdcCCR构型 S构型2022-12-228Sequence rules1.Higher a
5、tomic mass receives higher priority2.What if two substituents have the same rank when we consider the atoms directly attached to the stereocenter?In such a case,we proceed along the two respective substituent chains until we reach a point of difference.3.Double and trip bondCH2CH2CH3HCH2SHCH2CH2CH3H
6、CH2SCH3HHRROHOOHHHRCCCCRCCC OO CHC OO COH2022-12-2294.取代基互为对映异构体时,取代基互为对映异构体时,R 构型优先于构型优先于S 构型构型 取代基对几何异构体时,顺式取代基对几何异构体时,顺式(Z)优先于反式优先于反式(E)确定确定R,S 构型的方法:右手法则构型的方法:右手法则2022-12-2210问题问题 3-3 用R/S法标示下列各化合物的构型:(1)(2)ClCH2ClCH3CH(CH3)2CH2=CHHBrCH2CH3(H3C)2HC C CH2CH2OHClBr(3)2022-12-22112022-12-22122022-1
7、2-22132022-12-2214With symmetrical plane!2022-12-2215With/without symmetrical plane:For cyclic system:2022-12-2216For 1,4-disubstituted cyclohexane:MeHMeHHMeMeHcisachiraltransachiral2022-12-2217For cis-1,3-disubstituted cyclohexane:cisachiralWith symmetrical plane,loss of its chirality!2022-12-2218F
8、or trans-1,3-disubstituted cyclohexane:transchiralWithout symmetrical plane,with chirality!2022-12-2219How about cis-1,2-dimethylcyclohexane and trans-1,2-dimethylcyclohexane?2022-12-22202022-12-2221HHHH2022-12-22222.对称轴 CCCH3CH3HHClClClCl二重对称轴(C2)四重对称轴(C4)C3 symmetrical axis2022-12-2223C2 symmetric
9、al axis2022-12-22243.对称中心 ClClClClii对称中心2022-12-22252022-12-2226如果分子内存在对称面和对称中心,分子一定无手如果分子内存在对称面和对称中心,分子一定无手性。但分子内有对称轴,分子有可能是手性分子。性。但分子内有对称轴,分子有可能是手性分子。ClClClClC2C22022-12-2227问题问题 3-2 下列化合物有无对称中心、对称面或对称轴?(1)(3)(2)CH2H2CCH2H2CClClCOOHHOHOHHCOOH2022-12-2228含有一个手性碳原子的化合物 含有一个手性碳原子的分子一定是手性分子,有一对对映体,每个对
10、映体都具有旋光性,一个分子是右旋,另一个分子则是左旋。COOHCH3HOHCOOHCH3HOHCOOHCH3OHHCOOHCH3HOH乳酸乳酸费歇尔投影式费歇尔投影式 Fischer Projection2022-12-2229Fischer投影式 q 规定横键的两个基团朝前,竖键的两个基团朝规定横键的两个基团朝前,竖键的两个基团朝后后。q 不能离开纸面翻转,在纸面上向左或向右旋转不能离开纸面翻转,在纸面上向左或向右旋转180o,其构型保持不变。,其构型保持不变。q 在纸面上旋转在纸面上旋转9090o o或或270270o o后变成它的对映体。后变成它的对映体。q 固定一个基团,其余三个基团顺
11、时针或逆时针固定一个基团,其余三个基团顺时针或逆时针旋转,构型保持不变。旋转,构型保持不变。q 任意两个基团对调一次后变成它的对映体。任意两个基团对调一次后变成它的对映体。2022-12-2230R/S标记法(标记法(Designation of R/S):):将与手性碳相连的四个原子或基团按将与手性碳相连的四个原子或基团按次序规则次序规则排列出排列出基团的大小基团的大小abcd,将最小的基团,将最小的基团d离观察者最远。离观察者最远。其它三个基团按其它三个基团按abcbc的顺序。如果是顺时针,称的顺序。如果是顺时针,称为为R(Rectus拉丁文拉丁文“右右”字的字首)构型;逆时针,字的字首)
12、构型;逆时针,称为称为S(Sinister拉丁文拉丁文“左左”字的字首)构型。字的字首)构型。bcdabcdabcdaabdcCCR构型 S构型2022-12-2231Sir Christopher(Kelk)Ingold1893-1970*Vladimir Prelog1906-1998CahnIngoldPrelog priority rules CIP system or CIP conventions Robert Sidney Cahn 1899-1981 2022-12-22322022-12-2233用Fischer投影式表示分子构型时,可用下列简单的方法判断R/S构型:如果最小
13、基团在竖键上,表示最小基团在纸面后,观察者从前面看,按abc顺序,如果是顺时针方向转,即为R,如果是逆时针方向转,即为S。(S)-构型dacbcbad(R)-构型最小基团在竖键上abcabc顺时针旋转逆时针旋转2022-12-2234如果最小基团在横键上,表示最小基团在纸面前,观察者从如果最小基团在横键上,表示最小基团在纸面前,观察者从前面看时,则最小基团离观察者最近,若从前面看时,则最小基团离观察者最近,若从abcbc顺时针顺时针方向转,则手性碳的真实构型为方向转,则手性碳的真实构型为S,若是逆时针方向转,则,若是逆时针方向转,则手性碳的真实构型为手性碳的真实构型为R R。(S)-构型bac
14、ddbac(R)-构型最小基团在横键上abcabc顺时针旋转逆时针旋转2022-12-2235HNH2H3CHO2CHH2NCH3CO2HSR2022-12-2236问题问题 3-3 用R/S法标示下列各化合物的构型:(1)(2)ClCH2ClCH3CH(CH3)2CH2=CHHBrCH2CH32022-12-2237手性分子具有旋光性(Rotation)光学活性(光学活性(optically active)光传播方向光振动方向 光源 (普通光)普通光用振动形式表示 尼科尔棱镜 偏振光 2022-12-2238 起偏器起偏器 偏光偏光 旋光管旋光管 检偏器检偏器 (尼科尔棱镜尼科尔棱镜)(尼科
15、尔棱镜尼科尔棱镜)2022-12-2239旋转的角度旋转的角度称为称为旋光度旋光度(Rotation),如果检偏,如果检偏器向右旋转可以看到光,称为右旋(用器向右旋转可以看到光,称为右旋(用“+”表示),表示),如向左旋转则称为左旋(用如向左旋转则称为左旋(用“-”“-”表示)。表示)。旋转的角度旋转的角度不仅与物质本身的结构有关,而且与不仅与物质本身的结构有关,而且与物质的浓度以及旋光管的长度都有关。物质的浓度以及旋光管的长度都有关。2022-12-2240比旋光度(比旋光度(specific rotation):t.ct为测定时的温度;为测定时所用的波长,一般采用钠光(波长为589.3nm
16、,用符号D表示);是旋光仪上测得的旋光度;l是旋光管长度(dm);c是溶液浓度(1g/mL)。2022-12-2241CCOOHCH3HOHCCOOHCH3HOH (S)-(+)-乳酸乳酸 (R)-(-)-乳酸乳酸 ()-乳酸乳酸 mp 53oC mp 53oC mp 18oC D=+3.82 D=-3.82 D=0 pKa=3.79(25oC)pKa=3.83(25oC)pKa=3.86(25oC)151515外消旋乳酸外消旋乳酸一对对映体等量混合得到一对对映体等量混合得到外消旋体外消旋体:外消旋体与纯对映体的物理性质不同,旋光必然为零外消旋体与纯对映体的物理性质不同,旋光必然为零2022-
17、12-2242分子的构型与分子的旋光性没有直接关系分子的构型与分子的旋光性没有直接关系(R)-(+)-3-甲基戊炔手性化合物命名格式:2022-12-2243其它手性化合物与甘油醛相关联,不涉及手性碳四条键断裂的,构型保持不变。由此分别得到D-和L-构型系列化合物。HOHCH2OHCOOHHOHCH2OHCHOHOHCH3COOHOHD-(+)-甘油醛 D-(-)-甘油酸 D-(-)-乳酸 2022-12-22443.3 含两个手性碳原子的化合物含两个手性碳原子的化合物 3.3.1 含两个不同手性碳原子的化合物含两个不同手性碳原子的化合物含二个不相同手性碳的分子就有四个立体异构体含二个不相同手
18、性碳的分子就有四个立体异构体 CCCH3BrOHHHCH3CCOHCH3HH3CHBrCCOHCH3CH3HBrHCCHHOHH3CBrCH3(a)(b)(c)(d)Molecule containing two nonequivalent chiral centersNumber of stereoisomers=2n2022-12-2245CH3HClCH2CH3HClCH3ClHCH2CH3ClHCH3ClHCH2CH3HClCH3HClCH2CH3ClH赤式-2,3-二氯戊烷苏式-2,3-二氯戊烷I II III IVCH3ClHClHCH2CH3CH3HClHClCH2CH3CH3H
19、ClClHCH2CH3CH3ClHHClCH2CH3HClCH3ClHH3CClHCH3HClH3CClHCH3ClHH3CHClCH3HClH3C2022-12-2246u I 和和 III,I 和和 IV,II 和和 III,II 和和 IV是是非对映体非对映体(diastereomers)关系关系u I 和和 II,III 和和 IV 是是对映体(对映体(enantiomers)关系关系CH3HClCH2CH3HClCH3ClHCH2CH3ClHCH3ClHCH2CH3HClCH3HClCH2CH3ClH赤式-2,3-二氯戊烷苏式-2,3-二氯戊烷I II III IVu Stereoi
20、smers that are not enantiomers are diastereomers of each other.u As diastereomers they have different physical properties:mp,bp,etc.u Diastereomers often display different chemical reactivity.2022-12-2247O2NH2COHHNHHCCHClClOOHR123R132022-12-22483.3.2 含有两个相同手性碳原子的化合物含有两个相同手性碳原子的化合物 Molecule containin
21、g two equivalent chiral centers 如果分子内有如果分子内有n个不同的手性碳,立体异构体的数目个不同的手性碳,立体异构体的数目应是应是2 n(n为正整数)。为正整数)。含有两个相同手性碳的分子都只有三个立体异构体含有两个相同手性碳的分子都只有三个立体异构体:一对对映体和一个内消旋体一对对映体和一个内消旋体(meso)。HOHCOOHHOHCOOHNumber of stereoisomers=3?2022-12-2249COOHHOHCOOHHOHCOOHHOHCOOHHOHCOOHHOHCOOHHOHCOOHHOHCOOHHOHI II III IV(2R,3R)
22、-(+)-(2S,3S)-(-)-(2R,3S)-(2S,3R)-2022-12-2250COOHHOHCOOHHOHHOHCOOHOHHCOOHHOHCOOHHOHCOOHSymmetrical planeSymmetrical centerWhy achiral for meso one?HOHCOOHOHHOOCHHOCOOHHOHCOOHH2022-12-2251 含两个手性碳原子的分子,若在Fischer投影式中,两个手性碳原子上的H(或其它相同原子)在同一侧,称为赤式,在不同侧,称为苏式。赤式和苏式赤式和苏式如果分子内含有二个手性碳,且两个手性碳至少含有一个相同的基团时 2022-
23、12-2252(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(2R,3R)-(-)-赤藓糖赤藓糖(2S,3S)-(+)-赤藓糖赤藓糖(2S,3R)-(+)-苏阿糖苏阿糖(2R,3S)-(-)-苏阿糖苏阿糖HOCH2-CH(OH)-CH(OH)-CHO(i)(ii)对映体,对映体,(iii)(iv)对映体。对映体。(i)(iii),(i)(v),(ii)(iii),(ii)(v)为非对映体。为非对映体。CHOCH2OHOHOHHHRRCHOCH2OHHHHOHOSSCHOCH2OHHHOOHHSRCHOCH2OHOHHHHOSR2022-12-2253COOHHOHCOOHHOHCOOHHOHCOOHHOHC
24、OOHHOHCOOHHOHCOOHHOHCOOHHOHI II III IV(2R,3R)-(+)-(2S,3S)-(-)-(2R,3S)-(2S,3R)-酒石酸的光学异构体:哪个是赤酒石酸的光学异构体:哪个是赤式?哪个是苏式?式?哪个是苏式?2022-12-22542nn个个C*16D+D-D+D-D+D-D+D-D+D-D+D-D+D-D+D-四个四个C*8C+C-C+C-C+C-C+C-三个三个C*4B+B-B+B-两个两个C*2A-A+一个一个C*旋光异构体的数目旋光异构体的数目2022-12-2255HHCH3HOHchirality center(R)chirality cente
25、r(R)chirality center(S)2022-12-2256CH3HOHHOHCH3HOHCH3HOHHOHCH3HOHSRSRSRBoth of them are meso-cpds,because of the symmetrical plane (C3-H-OH).2022-12-2257问题问题 3-6 将下列化合物转换成Fischer投影式,并标出各手性碳的R/S构型。(1)(2)(3)CH2ClCH3BrHClHOHCH3OHHHCH3COOHClHHCH3HO2022-12-2258问题:下列各组化合物是什么关系(相同的,对映体、非对映体)(2)(1)COOHHCH3O
26、HHOHHOHHOHCOOHCH3CH3BrHCH3HBrBrHBrHCH3CH3和和和和ClCH3HClHC2H5CH3C2H5HClHCl(3)(4)CH3HOHHCH3OHOHCH3HOHHCH32022-12-2259(2R,3S)-2,3-二氯丁酸ClHCH3COOHClH(8)和(2S,3S)-2,3-二溴丁烷和和和CCCH3BrBrHHCH3CH3COOHCH3COOHCH3CH3CH3CH3(6)(7)(5)2022-12-22603.4 环状化合物的立体异构环状化合物的立体异构 顺反异构顺反异构对映异构对映异构H3CCH3CH3CH3CH3CH3c2c2RRSSRS如何命名?
27、2022-12-2261判别手性分子的依据判别手性分子的依据有有反轴反轴无无手性手性旋转旋转+反映(射)反映(射)反轴反轴(S Sn n)(或更迭或更迭对称轴,或旋转对称轴,或旋转反射轴)反射轴)有有对称中心对称中心无无手性手性反演反演对称中心对称中心(i i)(或反演中心)或反演中心)不能作为区别手性的不能作为区别手性的依据依据旋转旋转对称轴对称轴(C Cn n)有有对称面对称面无无手性手性反映(射)反映(射)对称面(对称面()判别手性的依据判别手性的依据对称操作对称操作对称元素对称元素n2n2S S1 1=S S2 2 =i i2022-12-2262CHClClClCClHCClHCH3
28、H3CHH三氯甲烷(有三个对称面)(Z)1,2二氯乙烯(有两个对称面)顺1,2二甲基环丁烷(有两个对称面)萘(有三个对称面)ClHHClHCH3HH3CHHClClHCH3CHH3绕轴旋转180HHClClCH3HHCH3HHClClCHHCH3反射(i)(ii)(iii)HHClClHCH3CHH3绕轴旋转180HHClClCH3HHCH3HHClClCHHCH3反射(i)(ii)(iii)H32022-12-2263Types of ChiralitySP hOM eH OO HO*HPM eO M eCentral chiralityP P h2P P h2M eOM eOM eO-B
29、IP H E PAxial chiralityNNPlanal chiralityHelical chiralityNNHHHHHHHHHHHHH2022-12-22643.5 不含手性碳原子的化合物的立体异构不含手性碳原子的化合物的立体异构 v 丙二烯丙二烯(联烯联烯)型化合物型化合物v 联苯型化合物联苯型化合物v 环外双键型化合物环外双键型化合物v 螺环螺环CCCHHHHCCCHCH3CH3HCCCCH3CH3CH3HH2022-12-2265NO2COOHNO2COOHCOOHNO2NO2COOH2022-12-2266NO2NO2CH3C-NO2 与与 C-NO2 384pm C-NO
30、2 与与 C-CH3 365pm由于位阻太大引起的旋光异由于位阻太大引起的旋光异构体称为构体称为位阻异构体。位阻异构体。2022-12-2267As a rule,an activation energy barrier of 16 to 19 kcal/mole is required to prevent spontaneous room temperature racemization of substituted biphenyls 2022-12-2268X1X2X3X4C原子与原子与X1(或(或X3)的中心)的中心距离和距离和C原子与原子与X2(或(或X4)的中心距离之和超过的中心
31、距离之和超过290pm,那么在室温,那么在室温(25oC)以下,这个化合)以下,这个化合物就有可能拆分成旋光异物就有可能拆分成旋光异构体。构体。单位:单位:pmC-H (104)C-CH3(150)C-COOH(156)C-NO2(192)C-NH2(156)C-OH(145)C-F (139)C-Cl (163)C-Br (183)C-I (200)联苯型的旋光异构体联苯型的旋光异构体2022-12-2269一个双键与一个环相连(一个双键与一个环相连(1909年拆分)年拆分)螺环形螺环形HH3CHCOOHHH3CHCOOH D=81.4o (乙醇乙醇)252022-12-2270n=8,可析
32、解,光活体稳定。,可析解,光活体稳定。n=9,可析解,可析解,95.5oC时,半衰期为时,半衰期为444min。n=10,不可析解。,不可析解。把手化合物把手化合物(CH2)nHOOC2022-12-2271n=4m=4可析解可析解43oCn=8半衰期半衰期170min。(CH2)n(CH2)mCOOHCOOHHOOC(CH2)nOO2022-12-2272CH3CH3H3CCH2COOH蒄(无手性)蒄(无手性)六螺并苯(有手性)六螺并苯(有手性)有手性面的旋光异构体有手性面的旋光异构体2022-12-22733.6 相对构型及相对构型及D/L标记法标记法 Relative configura
33、tion and D/LD-甘油醛L-甘油醛CHOCH2OHOHHOCOOHCH2OHOHHHCOOHCH3OHHD-(+)-甘油醛 D-(-)-甘油酸 D-(-)-乳酸2022-12-22742022-12-22752022-12-2276Pasteurs Discovery of Enantiomers(1849)Louis Pasteur discovered that sodium ammonium salts of tartaric acid crystallize into right handed and left handed formsThe optical rotation
34、s of equal concentrations of these forms have opposite optical rotations1951年,年,J.M.Bijvoet用用X-射线单晶衍射法成功地测定了右旋酒石射线单晶衍射法成功地测定了右旋酒石酸铷钠的绝对构型,并由此推断出酸铷钠的绝对构型,并由此推断出(+)-甘油醛的绝对构型。有趣的甘油醛的绝对构型。有趣的是实验测得的绝对构型正好与是实验测得的绝对构型正好与Fischer任意指定的相对构型相同。任意指定的相对构型相同。从此与甘油醛相关联的其他化合物的从此与甘油醛相关联的其他化合物的D/L构型也都代表绝对构型了。构型也都代表绝对构
35、型了。2022-12-2277DefinitionsThe term Chiral is derived from the Greek name xeir meaning hand and was coined by Lord Kelvin in his Baltimore Lectures on Molecular Dynamics and the Wave Theory of Light in which he stated.I call any geometrical figure,or group of points,chiral,and say it has chirality,if
36、 its image in a plane mirror,ideally realised,cannot be brought to coincide with itself.The concepts of asymmetry were developed by J.H.vant Hoff and J.A.Le Bel in 1874 following the resolution by Louis Pastuer of a mixture of tartaric acid salt isomers during the period 1848-1853,in which he picked
37、 out the differing crystal types by hand-doing so on the basis of the differing physical appearance of the salt crystals.Pastuer recognised that two of the isomers rotate polarised light differently(one to the left and the other to the right)and that this must be due to an asymmetric grouping of ato
38、ms in the optically active molecules.2022-12-2278DefinitionsChiral Atom(Stereogenic Centre)Any atom surrounded by 4 different groups.The term chiral refers to individual molecules.It does not tell you anything about the enantiomeric purity of a substance.Racemates are made up of chiral molecules.Ena
39、ntiomerically PureAll molecules in the sample are the same enantiomer.2022-12-2279 DiastereomersStereoisomers which are not enantiomers DiastereoselectivityPreference for one diastereomer of product over another.EnantioselectivityPreference for one enantiomer of product over the other,achieved by se
40、lectivity between diastereomeric TSs.Reactions involving chiral starting materials(including those bearing chiral auxiliaries)are always diastereoselective.2022-12-2280RRXXequivalent.Behave identically.as R=RRRXXenantiotopic.Behave identically except towards a chiral reagent.as R=REnantiotopicTwo id
41、entical groups are enantiotopic if substitution of each in turn by another group gives enantiomeric molecules2022-12-2281RR*XXdiastereotopic.Have intrinsically different behaviour(and NMR).as R=R*and R*is chiralDiastereotopicTwo identical groups are diastereotopic if substitution of each in turn by
42、another group gives diastereoisomeric molecules2022-12-2282Prochirality-Enantiotopic groups and faces are said to be prochiralfor example:-MeORHH*label these protons pro-Rand pro-SS*label these lone-pairs pro-Rand pro-SMeORHH123pro-SSpro-R123pro-Rpro-S2022-12-2283also for sp2 carbons,including alken
43、es&carbonyl carbons:OMeHO2CH-H-Re-faceSi-faceMeCO2HOHMeCO2HOHS-enantiotopic faces(Re and Si)of a single atom(NOT a bond):-123R(Latin rectus and sinister)2022-12-2284Methods for obtaining chiral non-racemic compounds1)Chiral pool2)Chiral resolution technique3)Chiral auxiliary methodology4)Asymmetric
44、catalysisa)enzymatic catalysisb)chemocatalysismetal-mediated catalysismetal-free catalysis(organocatalysis)2022-12-2285Methods for obtaining chiral non-racemic compounds1)Chiral pool2)Chiral resolution technique3)Chiral auxiliary methodology4)Asymmetric catalysisa)enzymatic catalysisb)chemocatalysis
45、metal-mediated catalysismetal-free catalysis(organocatalysis)2022-12-2286Technology usein 2003R&D output in 20032022-12-2287精品课件精品课件!2022-12-2288精品课件精品课件!2022-12-2289The Sharpless Asymmetric EpoxidationBarry Sharpless is a chemistry Professor at the Scripps Institute in San Diego,California.He is on
46、e of the most successful organic chemists ofrecent times,a Nobel Prize Laureate.He is responsible for severalexcellent asymmetric reactions.The Sharpless asymmetric epoxidation is specific for allylic alcohols.It uses a stoichiometric oxidant,typically tert-butyl hydroperoxide,andcatalytic amounts of titanium isopropoxide and diisopropyl tartrate(or diethyltartrate)to generate the catalytic species(5-10 mol%is typically required)