1、DISEASE AND TREATMENTYe LinCardiothoracic Surgery 1st Affiliated Hospital,Chongqing Medical UDiagnosisMedical diagnosis,the determination of the nature and cause of an illness,begins with a patient history.This includes a history of the present illness with a description of symptoms,a past medical h
2、istory,and a family and a social history.A physical examination,which includes a review of all systems and observation of any signs of illness,follows the history taking.Practitioners use the following techniques in performing physicals:Practitioner:person who practises as a professionGeneral practi
3、tioner Inspection:visual examination.Palpation:touching the surface of the body with the hands or fingers.examine(sth)by feeling with the hands,esp as part of a medical examination Percussion(precussion sound):tapping the body and listening to the sounds produced.Auscultation:listening to body sound
4、s with a stethoscopeprefix meaning the chest检查镜 ultrasonic scopeultrasonic stethoscoeAuscultation using a stethoscopePercussionscop-=look at,inspect(from the Greek root steth/o,meaning“chest”)Vital signs(VS)are also recorded for comparison with normal ranges.Vital signs are measurements that reflect
5、 basic functions necessary to maintain life and include:Temperature(T).Pulse rate,measured in beats per minute(bpm)Respiration rate(R),measured in breaths per minute.Blood pressure(BP),measured in millimeters mercury(mm Hg)and recorded when the heart is contracting(systolic pressure)and relaxing(dia
6、stolic pressure)Measuring the pulse rateMeasuring blood pressure with asphygmomanometerAdditional tools used in physical examinations include the ophthalmoscope(,for examination of the eyes;the otoscope,for examination of the ears;hammers,for testing reflexes,and the blood pressure cuff or sphygmo m
7、anometer(A)Ophthalmoscope.(B)OtoscopeOphthalm o scopeophthalmic lensophthalmologyOto scopeImaging TechniquesImaging techniques are the use of various physical forces to produce visual images of the body.The most fundamental imaging method is radiography,which uses x-rays to produce a picture(radiogr
8、aph)on sensitized film.Radiography is best at showing dense tissues,such as bone,but views of soft tissue can be enhanced by using a contrast medium,such as a barium mixture,to outline the tissue.Other forms of energy used to produce diagnostic images include sound waves,radioactive isotopes,radio w
9、aves,and magnetic fields.magnetic磁性的 TreatmentIf diagnosis so indicates,treatment,also termed therapy,is begun.This may consist of counseling,drugs,surgery,radiation,physical therapy,occupational therapy,psychiatric treatment,or a combination of these.During diagnosis and throughout the course of tr
10、eatment,a patient is evaluated to establish a prognosis,that is,a prediction of the outcome of the disease.SurgerySurgery is a method for treating disease or injury by manual operations.Surgery may be done through an existing body opening,but usually it involves cutting or puncturing tissue with a s
11、harp instrument in the process of incision.Some form of anesthesia to dull or eliminate pain is usually required.After surgery,incisions must be closed for proper healing.Conventionally,this is done using stitches or sutures,but adhesive strips,staples,and skin glue also are used.A disease is any al
12、teration from the normal structure or function of any part of the body.Diseases can be grouped into a number of different but often overlapping categories.These include:Infectious diseasescaused by microorganisms and other parasites that live at the expense of another organism.Any disease-causing or
13、ganism is described as a pathogen.DiseaseDegenerative diseasesresulting from wear and tear,aging,or trauma(injury)that can result in a lesion(wound)and perhaps necrosis(death)of tissue.Common examples include arthritis,cardiovascularproblems,and certain respiratory disorders such as emphysema.Struct
14、ural malformations such as congenital malformations,prolapse(dropping),or hernia(rupture)may also result in degenerative changes.Neoplasiaabnormal and uncontrolled growth of tissue.Immune disordersfailures of the immune system,allergies,and autoimmune diseases,in which the body makes antibodies to i
15、ts own tissues,fall into this category.Metabolic disordersresulting from lack of enzymes or other factors needed for cellular functions.Many hereditary disorders fall into this category.Malnutrition caused by inadequate intake ofnutrients or inability of the body to absorb and use nutrients also ups
16、ets metabolism.Hormonal disorderscaused by underproduction or overproduction of hormones or by inability of the hormones to function properly.One example is diabetes mellitus.Mental and emotional disordersdisorders that affect the mind and adaptation of an individual to his or her environment.The ca
17、use of a disease is its etiology,although many diseases have multiple interacting causes.An acute disease is sudden and severe and of short duration.A chronic disease is of long duration and progresses slowly.Infectious DiseasesInfectious diseases are caused by viruses,bacteria,fungi(yeasts and mold
18、s),protozoa(single-celled animals),and worms.In shape,bacteria may be round(cocci),rod-shaped(bacilli),or curved(vibrios and spirochetes).They may be named according to their shape and by the arrangements they form.They also are described according to the dyes they take up when stained in the labora
19、tory.The most common laboratory bacterial stain is the Gram stain,with which grampositive organisms stain purple and gram-negative organisms stain red.Microorganisms often produce disease by means of the toxins(poisons)they release.The presence of harmful microorganisms or their toxins in the body i
20、s termed sepsis.Responses to DiseaseInflammationA common response to infection and to other forms of disease is inflammation.When cells are injured,they release chemicals that allow blood cells and fluids to move into the tissues.This inflow of blood results in thefour signs of inflammation:heat,pai
21、n,redness,and swelling.The suffix-itis indicates inflammation appendicitisPhagocytosisThe body uses phagocytosis to get rid of invading microorganisms,damaged cells,and other types of harmful debris.Certain white blood cells are capable of engulfing these materials and destroying them internally.Pha
22、gocytic cells are found circulating in the blood,in the tissues,and in the lymphatic system.The remains of phagocytosis consist of fluid and white blood cells;this is called pus.ImmunityThe immune system mounts our specific responses to disease.Cells of the immune system recognize different foreign
23、invaders,and get rid of them by direct attack and with circulating antibodies that immobilize and help to destroy the cells.The immune system also monitors the body continuously for abnormal and malfunctioning cells,such as cancer cells.The system may also overreact to produce allergies,and may reac
24、t to ones own tissues to cause autoimmune diseases.NeoplasiaAs noted above,a neoplasm is an abnormal and uncontrolled growth of tissuea tumor or growth.A neoplasm that does not spread,that is,metastasize,to other tissues is described as benign,although it may cause damage at the site where it grows.
25、A neoplasm that metastasizes to other tissues is termed malignant,and iscommonly called cancer.A malignant tumor that involves epithelial tissue is a carcinoma.If the tumor arises in glandular epithelium,it is an adenocarcinoma(the root aden/o means“gland”);A cancer of pigmented epithelial cells(mel
26、anocytes)is a melanoma.A neoplasm that involves connective tissue,muscle,or bone is asarcoma.Often mistaken for a malignancy is a cyst,a sac or pouch filled with fluid or semisolid material that is usually abnormal but not cancerous.Common sites for cyst formation are the breasts,the sebaceous glands of the skin,and the ovaries.Causes of cyst formation include infection or blockage of a ductWords for Disease Used as Suffixes
