1、Slides prepared by Thomas BishopCopyright 2009 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. Chapter 8 International Trade Policy: Tariff 6-2 Preview Types of Tariffs The Effects of a Tariff in a small economy The Effects of a Tariff in a large economy Dynamic effects of a Tariff Effective Rate of Pr
2、otection 8-3 Types of Tariffs A tariff(关税关税) is levied for imported goods and exported goods by customs. A specific tariff(从量关税从量关税) is levied as a fixed charge for each unit of imported goods. For example, $1 per kg of cheese An ad valorem tariff(从价关税从价关税) is levied as a fraction of the value of im
3、ported goods. For example, 25% tariff on the value of imported cars. 8-4 Types of Tariffs(cont.) A sliding tariff(滑准税滑准税) changes in reverse to the price of imported goods. When import price is higher, the rate of sliding tariff will decrease, vice versa. A special tariff(特别性关税特别性关税) is levied for i
4、mported or exported goods for a particular purpose. For example, anti dumping duty/countervailing tariff, and anti subsidy tariff. 8-5 The Effects of a Tariff in a small economy Lets construct a model measuring how a tariff affects a single market, say that of wheat, in a small economy. Suppose that
5、 in the absence of trade the price of wheat in the foreign country is lower than that in the domestic country. With trade the foreign country will export, while the domestic country will import wheat. When a country is “small,” it has no effect on the foreign (world) price of a good, because its dem
6、and of the good is an insignificant part of world demand. 6-6 Fig.8-1The Effects of a Tariff in a small economy 8-7 The change of the price of wheat in the domestic market Domestic country is a small importer of wheat, Pw is the world price of wheat, and Pd is the price of wheat in the domestic mark
7、et. A tariff t can be viewed as an added cost of import, making importers unwilling to import goods, unless the price difference between the domestic and foreign markets exceeds the tariff. Thus the price of wheat will tend to rise to Pd in the domestic market. Pd Pw = t 8-8 Consumers surplus and pr
8、oducers surplus Because the price in domestic markets rises (to Pd), domestic producers should supply more and domestic consumers should demand less, and the quantity of imports falls from S0 D0 to S1 D1. A tariff raises the price of a good in the importing country, so we expect it to hurt consumers
9、 and benefit producers there. How to measure these costs and benefits? We use the concepts of consumer surplus and producer surplus. 8-9 Consumers surplus and producers surplus(cont.) Consumer surplus measures the amount that consumers gain from purchases by the difference in the price that each pay
10、s from the maximum price each would be willing to pay. Producer surplus measures the amount that producers gain from a sale by the difference in the price each receives from the minimum price each would be willing to sell at. 8-10 Consumers surplus and producers surplus(cont.) A tariff raises the pr
11、ice of a good in the importing country, making its consumer surplus decrease (making its consumers worse off) and making its producer surplus increase (making its producers better off). Consumer loss=a+b+c+d. Producer gain=b 8-11 Government revenue A tariff brings income to government, so that gover
12、nment revenue will increase. Government revenue gain=c 8-12 Net Welfare Effects of a Tariff in a small country For a “small” country, net welfare effects of a tariff =a+c-(a+b+c+d) =b+d The triangles b represent the efficiency loss of production (生产效率损失生产效率损失). The triangles d represent the efficien
13、cy loss of consumption (消费效率损失消费效率损失). The tariff distorts production and consumption decisions: producers produce too much and consumers consume too little compared to the market outcome. 8-13 The Effects of a Tariff in a large economy For a “large” country, the domestic tariff causes a significant
14、 drop in the quantity demanded of foreign wheat, so that the price of the wheat in foreign(world) markets should fall from Pw to P*w . Because of a tariff cost, foreign wheat should at least be sold at the price Pd, which is equal to P*w +t, in the domestic market. In the case of competition, the pr
15、ice of wheat in domestic market should rise from Pw to Pd . In this case, the increase in the price of the good in the domestic country is less than the amount of the tariff. Fig.8-2 The Effects of a Tariff in a large economy 6-14 8-15 The Effects of a Tariff in a large economy A tariff raises the p
16、rice of a good in the importing country, making its consumer surplus decrease (making its consumers worse off) and making its producer surplus increase (making its producers better off). Also, government revenue will increase. Consumer loss=a+b+c+d. Producer gain=b Government revenue gain=c+e 8-16 N
17、et Welfare Effects of a Tariff in a Large Country Net welfare effects of a tariff in a “large” country =a+c+e-(a+b+c+d) = e-(b+d) The triangles b and d represent the efficiency loss of production and consumption(生产和消费效率损失生产和消费效率损失). The rectangle e represents the terms of trade gain (贸易条件改善所得贸易条件改善所
18、得). The terms of trade increases because the tariff lowers foreign export (domestic import) prices. 8-17 Net Welfare Effects of a Tariff in a Large Country(cont.) Compared to a “small” country, for a “large” country, whose imports and exports can affect foreign (world) prices, the welfare effect of
19、a tariff is ambiguous. If the terms of trade gain exceeds the efficiency loss, then national welfare will increase under a tariff, at the expense of foreign countries. However, this analysis assumes that the terms of trade does not change due to tariff changes by foreign countries (that is, due to r
20、etaliation). Dynamic effects of a Tariff The effect of income redistribution The effect of economic growth The effect of price transmission(价格传 递) The effect of exchange rate change 6-18 8-19 Effective Rate of Protection The effective rate of protection(有效保护率有效保护率) measures how much protection a tar
21、iff or other trade policy provides domestic producers. It represents the change in value that firms in an industry add to the production process when trade policy changes. Effective rates of protection often differ from nominal tariff rates, which presents nominal rates of protection, because nomina
22、l tariffs are often levied on final products, only reflects the protection of the final product, do not reflect the level of protection of intermediate input . Tariff Structure and Effective Rate of Protection 名义保护率只反映了对最终产品的保护，但是由于进 口竞争（进口替代）行业中的企业，不但受到对进口 商品征收关税的影响，而且也受到对所使用的原材料 等中间投入品征收关税的影响，所以，名
23、义保护率不 能反映对进口替代产业的真实保护水平。 比如，一国小汽车生产行业是靠进口原材料来维持生 产的，对进口钢材等原材料征收关税，就会影响到小 汽车的生产成本，进而对该国小汽车的国际竞争能力 产生影响。这就产生了关税结构（tariff structure）理 论。 6-20 Effective Rate of Protection(cont.) 有效保护率（Effective Rate of Protection）又称实际保 护率，是指整个关税制度和有效保护措施使某一产业 每单位产出的增加值提高的百分率。 有效保护率的计算公式： 设在自由贸易的情况下，最终产品A的的增加值为V1， 采取一系列
24、直接或间接影响A产品市场竞争力的贸易保 护措施后，A产品的增加值提高到V2，那么，产品A的 有效保护率（ERP）的计算公式为： 6-21 %100 1 12 V VV ERP 8-22 Effective Rate of Protection (cont.) For example, suppose that automobiles sell in world markets for $10,000, and they are made from factors of production worth $8,000. The value added of the production proc
25、ess is $10,000-$8,000 Suppose that a country puts a 25% tariff on imported components and parts, and puts a 50% tariff on imported autos, so that domestic auto firms can now charge up to $15,000, but the cost of a assembling a car rise to $10,000. The value added of the production process is $15,000
26、-$10,000. 8-23 Fig.8-3 Effective Rate of Protection 增加值 V=5000美元 每辆汽车的 投入成本： 8000美元 对整车征 收50的 关税 增加值 V=2000美元 对 投 入 品 征收25%的 关税 10,000 8,000 15000 10000 8000 每辆汽车的 投入成本： 8000美元 2000美元 关税 8-24 Effective Rate of Protection (cont.) The effective rate of protection for domestic auto assembly firms is th
27、e change in value added: ($5,000 - $2,000)/$2,000 = 150% In this case, the effective rate of protection is greater than the nominal tariff rate. 如果除了关税以外，不存在其他任何保护措施 那么，我们可以得到如下的一般性结论： 当最终产品的名义关税率大于原材料等中间产 品的名义关税率时，最终产品的有效保护率就 大于其名义保护率； 当最终产品的名义关税率小于原材料等中间产 品的名义关税率时，最终产品的有效保护率就 小于其名义保护率； 只有当最终产品的名义关
28、税率等于原材料等中 间产品的名义关税率时，最终产品的有效保护 率才等于其名义保护率。 研究关税结构，区分名义保护率与实际保护率的差异， 具有重要的意义。当最终产品名义税率一定时，对所 需的原材料等中间投入品征收的名义税率越低，则最 终产品名义税率的保护作用就越大（有效保护率越 高）。因此，如果要保护某产业，不仅要考虑对该产 业最终产品的关税率，而且要把整个关税结构与该产 业的生产结构结合起来进行考虑，再来制定相应的政 策措施。 基于有效保护率的考虑，发达国家常常采用逐步升级 的关税结构（关税升级）：对初级产品进口免税或只 征很低的关税，对半成品征收较高的关税，但对制成 品，特别是劳动密集型制成品征收更高的关税。关税 升级的结果是：国内加工程度越深，有效保护率超出 名义保护率的比率就越大。
