1、第十讲第十一章探索生命的奥秘 心脏是生命的开始，它是微型宇宙的太阳，正如太阳是世界的心脏一样，因为它使血液发生运动在动物体内的一切力量都离不开它。 -哈维：哈维：动物的心血运动和解剖学研究动物的心血运动和解剖学研究 有关物种起源的类似观点，一旦被普遍地采纳以后，我们就可以隐约地预见到在自然史中将会引起重大的革命。 -达尔文：达尔文：物种起源物种起源对人体结构的研究 在意大利教堂和宫殿中那些美丽的人体艺术形象产生的同时，就有一批人对人体开始了冷静的解剖学研究。佛罗伦萨的画家波提切利、列奥那多达芬奇和德国的丢勒(1471-1528)为画画和作图，都研究了透视学和解剖学。列奥那多达芬奇通过大量的尸体
2、解剖对人体构造有了相当多的了解，并把它用图表示出来，他还有血液循环的概念，再前进一步，他就会由解剖学进入生理学。Andreas Vesalius 比利时出生的医生维萨留斯(1514-1564)是人体结构研究的开创者。维萨留斯18岁入巴黎大学医学院学习，后来到意大利的帕多瓦、比萨和波伦亚等大学教解剖学，上课时进行实际的解剖表演和讲解，并且指出了被奉为权威的盖仑的多处错误。1543年哥白尼发表天体运行论天体运行论的同时，这位29岁的青年在教学期间写成的人体的构造人体的构造一书也出版了。 维萨留斯对解剖学的研究大大超过了列奥那多达芬奇。他指导威尼斯的画家提香的一个门徒所绘的300多幅人体解剖图版令人
3、赞叹。他在解剖过程中也接触到了血液循环问题，但却没有沿着这个方向继续前进。维萨留斯解剖的一般都是被处决的犯人尸体，这对教学来说显得不够，据说他的学生为了解剖还盗过墓。这引起了公众的不满。Andreas Vesalius In the class 由于他的行为引起了教俗两界的非难，他在其著作出版后就放弃了研究工作，做了西班牙皇帝查理五世及其继承者菲力普二世的御医。但这位御医后来还是受到了别人的攻击-有人说他解剖了活人，宗教裁判所对他提出公诉，判其死罪，后由国王出面干预改为去耶路撒冷朝圣，但在返回时船舶遇险，他也病死途中。 Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) Vesalius
4、 was a Flemish-born anatomist whose dissections of the human body helped to correct misconceptions dating from ancient times. Andreas Vesalius was born on 31 December 1512 in Brussels, Belgium, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. He came from a family of physicians and both his father and grandfathe
5、r had served the Holy Roman Emperor. Vesalius studied medicine in Paris but was forced to leave before completing his degree when the Holy Roman Empire declared war on France. He then studied at the University of Louvain, and then moved to Padua to study for his doctorate. Upon completion in 1537 he
6、 was immediately offered the Chair of Surgery and Anatomy.Surgery and anatomy were then considered of little importance in comparison to the other branches of medicine. However, Vesalius believed that surgery had to be grounded in anatomy. Unusually, he always performed dissections himself and produ
7、ced anatomical charts of the blood and nervous systems as a reference aid for his students, which were widely copied.In the same year Vesalius wrote a pamphlet on blood letting, a popular treatment for a variety of illnesses. There was debate about where in the body the blood should be taken from. V
8、esalius pamphlet was supported by his knowledge of the blood system and he showed clearly how anatomical dissection could be used to test speculation, and underlined the importance of understanding the structure of the body in medicine.In 1539 his supply of dissection material increased when a Padua
9、n judge became interested in Vesalius work, and made bodies of executed criminals available to him. Vesalius was now able make repeated and comparative dissections of humans. This was in marked contrast to Galen, the standard authority on anatomy who, for religious reasons, had been restricted to an
10、imals, mainly apes. Vesalius realised that Galens and his own observations differed, and that humans do not share the same anatomy as apes.In 1543 Vesalius published De Humani Corporis Fabrica. The book was based largely on human dissection, and transformed anatomy into a subject that relied on obse
11、rvations taken directly from human dissections. Vesalius now left anatomical research to take up medical practice. Maintaining the tradition of imperial service he became physician to the imperial court of Emperor Charles V and in 1555 took service with Charles son, Philip II of Spain.In 1564 he lef
12、t for a trip to the Holy Land but died on 15 October 1564 on the Greek island of Zacynthus during the journey home.c.1540, Andreas Vesalius, Flemish anatomist and doctor Biography Andreas Vesalius (1514-64) was a Belgian anatomist and physician whose dissections of the human body and descriptions of
13、 his finding helped to correct misconceptions prevailing since ancient times. Vesalius was born in Brussels and attended the University of Louvain and later the University of Paris, where he studied from 1533 to 1536. At Paris he studied medicine and developed an interset in anatomy. With further st
14、udy at the University of Padua in 1537 Vesalius obtained his medical degree and a job as a lecturer on surgery. During his research Vesalius showed that the anatomical teachings of Galen, revered in medical schools, was based upon the dissections of animals even though they were meant as a guide to
15、the human body.Vesalius wrote the revolutionary texts, De Humani Corporis Fabrica, which were seven volumes on the structure of the human body. The volumes were completely illustrated with fine engravings based on his own drawings. These were the most accurate and comprehensive anatomical texts to d
16、ate and led to his appointment as physician to Holy Roman emporer Charles V. After Charles V resigned his son, Philip II, appointed Vesalius to his staff of physicians in 1559. After several years at the imperial court in Madrid, Vesalius made a voyage to the Holy Land. On the voyage home in 1564, h
17、e died in a shipwreck off of the island of Zacynthus.Submitted by Ron DuLong c.1540, Andreas Vesalius, Flemish anatomist and doctor 血液循环的发现 维萨留斯的同学塞尔维特塞尔维特(1511-1553)是 西班牙人，也是“惟一神教派”的狂热拥 护者，受到了天主教和新教两方面的仇 恨。他逃过了天主教裁判所的阴影，却落入了新教加尔文加尔文派的魔掌，在被烤了两个小时后才活活烧死，同时他的基督教的复兴一书也被焚烧，仅仅有两三本幸存下来。这本书里记载了作者对血液循环的天才发现
18、。由于这是以宣传自己的宗教主张为主旨的一本书，在当时的影响并不大。塞尔维特死了6年后，科隆布(1510-1559)重新提出了心肺循环的思想，但并没有提到过塞尔维特的发现。John Calvin 发现血液循环的道路 在发现血液循环的道路上还应提到在帕多瓦大学教了64年书的法布里修斯(1537-1619)。他在1603年发表了论静脉的瓣膜一书，但他没有弄明白瓣膜的作用是使血液单向地流回心脏，而真正理解这一点并发现了人体血液大循环的是他的一个英国学生哈维。 哈维(1578-1657)是在剑桥读过书之后 才去帕多瓦大学跟法布里修斯学医的。 他就学时，伽利略正在这所学校任教。 1602年哈维回伦敦成为开
19、业医生。 1616年，哈维开始以院士的身份在皇家医学院讲授第一门课程，此时他已发现了血液循环的大致情况。1628年，他的动物的心血运动和解剖学研究一书发表。1632年，他成了查理一世国王的御医。1649年，他所侍奉的国王在资产阶级革命中被送上了断头台后，他在伦敦过着隐退的生活。由于他的成就，英国皇家医学院在他生前就树起了他的雕像。William Harvey (1578-1657): On The Motion Of The Heart And Blood In Animals, 动物的心血运动和解剖学研究一书,1628哈维曾为弗朗西斯培根看过病，但他们的关系并不融洽。有人问起他对培根的印象时
20、，他不无讥意地说：他以大法官的态度在写哲学著作。哈维的名言是以自然为师而不以哲学家为师。但他和培根都认为，科学研究应以实验为据而不应以书籍为据。 作为哲学家的弗朗西斯培根在科学上的实验是多方面的，也是拙劣的，没有做出任何有意义的科学发现。哈维却通过绑扎上臂血管和计算心脏血流量两个实验,作出了划时代的发现，并且预言了毛细血管的存在。他的发现为科学的生理学奠定了基础。 绑扎上臂血管时，下方动脉平，静脉鼓；上方则是动脉鼓，绑扎上臂血管时，下方动脉平，静脉鼓；上方则是动脉鼓，静脉平，表明动脉和静脉中血流相反，构成回路。观察动物心脏搏动，静脉平，表明动脉和静脉中血流相反，构成回路。观察动物心脏搏动，半小
21、时后，发现输送出来的血液超过了全身的血液总量，证明血液不半小时后，发现输送出来的血液超过了全身的血液总量，证明血液不可能在肢端被吸收，又在肝脏中制造出来，而只能是在身体内循环流可能在肢端被吸收，又在肝脏中制造出来，而只能是在身体内循环流动。动。William Harvey(1578 - 1657) William Harvey Harvey was an English physician who was the first to describeaccurately how blood was pumped around the body by the heart.William Harve
22、y was born in Folkestone, Kent on 1 April 1578. His father was a merchant. Harvey was educated at Kings College, Canterbury and then at Cambridge University. He then studied medicine at the University of Padua in Italy, where the scientist and surgeonHieronymus Fabricius tutored him.Fabricius, who w
23、as fascinated by anatomy, recognised that the veins in the human body had one-way valves, but was puzzled as to their function. It was Harvey who took the foundation of Fabriciuss teaching, and went on to solve the riddle of what part the valves played in the circulation of blood through the body.On
24、 his return from Italy in 1602, Harvey established himself as a physician. His career was helped by his marriage to Elizabeth Browne, daughter of Elizabeth Is physician, in 1604. In 1607, he became a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians and, in 1609, was appointed physician to St Bartholomews H
25、ospital. In 1618, he became physician to Elizabeths successor James I and to James son Charles when he became king. Both James and Charles took a close interest in and encouraged Harveys research.Harveys research was furthered through the dissection of animals. He first revealed his findings at the
26、College of Physicians in 1616, and in 1628 he published his theories in a book entitled Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus (An Anatomical Study of the Motion of the Heart and of the Blood in Animals), where he explained how the heart propelled the blood in a circular cou
27、rse through the body. His discovery was received with great interest in England, although it was greeted with some scepticism on the Continent.Harvey was also the first to suggest that humans and other mammals reproduced via the fertilisation of an egg by sperm. It took a further two centuries befor
28、e a mammalian egg was finally observed, but nonetheless Harveys theory won credibility during his lifetime.Harvey retained a close relationship with the royal family through the English Civil War and witnessed the Battle of Edgehill. Thanks to Charles I he was, for a short time, warden of Merton Col
29、lege, Oxford (1645 - 1646). He died on 3 June 1657. 在哈维死后3年的1660年，意大利人马尔比基(1628-1694)用显微镜观察到了青蛙肺部的毛细血管，从而证实了哈维的预言。当时，荷兰人列文虎克(1632-1723)也用显微镜观察到蝌蚪尾巴中动脉血管中的血液通过毛细血管回到了静脉。至此，血液循环的路线便完全清楚了。Anton Van Leeuwenhoek - Father of Microscopy Optics and Electron Microscope 从细胞的发现到细胞学说 在哈维发现血液循环之后，对生物个体研究的工作就更加深入
30、了，而这种研究的深入首先是由于显微镜的应用。一般认为，显微镜是由荷兰人詹森(1580-1642)在16世纪末发明的，伽利略和惠更斯改进了它。 1665年，英国人胡克在用显微镜观察软木切片时，发现了细胞。随之，列文虎克发现了微生物和动物的精子，德格拉夫(1641-1673)发现了卵子。此后，意大利人斯帕朗扎尼(1729-1799)通过狗的精子和卵子的试验，发现了精子在卵子发育中的作用，明确了动物的性过程。1694年，德国人卡梅腊鲁斯(1665-1721)通过对植物雄蕊和雌蕊的研究，发现植物也有性过程。 后来德国人科尔鲁特(1733-1806)和盖特纳(1772-1856)所进行的植物杂交试验，实
31、际上是沿着发现遗传定律方向的生物学研究。预成论和渐成论 动物精子发现后，在解释生物个体发生过程方面形成了预成论和渐成论两种观点。 预成论认为，在精子或卵子细胞中存在着完整的生物小体，个体的发育形成只不过是这种小体长大的结果。荷兰人施旺墨丹(1637-1680)甚至认为蝴蝶的卵中已包含着蝴蝶的小体，甚至还包含着这一个体一切未来世代的预成小体。 根据这种说法，所有的人原来都包含在亚当和夏娃(圣经中人类的祖先)的性器官里。渐成论批驳预成论 德国学者沃尔夫(1733-1794)用显微镜观察了鸡的胚胎发育过程，发现鸡的个体上的每个部分不是预成的，而是在卵子的组织中逐渐发育而成的，而这种发育是细胞变化的结
32、果。 这样，沃尔夫便用渐成论批驳了预成论，并且在实际上开始建立了胚胎学。 在沃尔夫的渐成论中，也包含着系统的细胞学说的胚芽。沃尔夫之后，在德国从事生物学研究的俄国人冯贝尔(1792-1872)发展了胚胎发育理论，打击了预成论，他对比较胚胎学的研究还影响了达尔文的思想。Basswood (Tilia) stem, 10 x objective. Wheat kernel, 4x objective. Click on photo for larger picture Matthias Jakob Schleiden 自从胡克发现细胞以来，经过100年的研 究，一种完整的细胞学说在19世纪30年
33、代终于形成。1838年，德国人施莱登 (1804-1881)发表了论植物的发生一文，提 出细胞是一切植物体的基本单位，植物发育的过 程就是新细胞形成的过程。 1839年，德国人施旺(1810-1882)发表了动植物结构和生长相似性的显微研究一文，把施莱登的学说扩大到了动物界。 这样便形成了适用于整个生物界的细胞学说，动植物的结构组织和发育过程，便在细胞的层次上得到了一种统一的解释。 Schwann, Theodor (1810-1882) b. Hamburg (Germany), April 5, 1804, d. Frankfurt, June 23, 1881 In 1838 Schle
34、iden proposed that all plants are composed of cells; together with his friend Theodor Schwann he formulated the cell theory of life. Schleiden observed various cell structures and activities such as protoplasmic streaming. Schleiden also found that certain fungi live on or within the roots of some p
35、lants. This relationship between fungi and plants, called mycorrhiza (fungi roots), has since been shown to be very common and extremely beneficial to both organisms.Schleiden, Matthias JakobSchwann, Theodor (1810-1882) German physiologist who served as an assistant to Johannes Mller. He discovered
36、the digestive enzyme pepsin in 1836. He showed that yeast were tiny plant-like organisms, and suggested that fermentation was a biological process. Schwann was a master microscopist who examined animal tissue, specifically working on notochord development in tadpoles. In Mikroskopische Untersuchunge
37、n ber die bereinstimmung in der Struktur und dem Wachstum der Thiere und Pflanzen (Microscopic researches on the Conformity in Structure and Growth Between Animals and Plants, 1839), he recognized nuclear structures similar to what Schleiden had observed in plants. In 1839, he extended Schleidens ce
38、ll theory to animals, stating that all living things are composed of cells. He believed that new cells form principally outside pre-existing cells, and wanted to draw an analogy to crystal formation. Mller (Johannes), Schleiden 生殖细胞和细胞病理学 此后，德国人雷马克雷马克和瑞士人寇力克寇力克等人把细胞学说应用于胚胎学研究，发现精子和卵子就是一种细胞，卵子发育成生物卵子
39、发育成生物个体的过程就是细胞分裂的过程。个体的过程就是细胞分裂的过程。 1858年，德国病理学家微耳和微耳和将细胞学说应用于病理研究，发现病变细胞是由正常细胞变化而来的，从而开创了细胞病理学。细胞病理学。微生物的发现和研究 在整个生物王国内，除了动植物之外还有微生物。1669年，列文虎克列文虎克用放大倍数近300倍的显微镜在一个不刷牙的老人的口腔中发现，“在一个人口腔的牙垢里生在一个人口腔的牙垢里生活的生物，比整个王国的居民还多活的生物，比整个王国的居民还多”这种生物就是微生物。 他把自己的发现写成报告，寄给了英国皇家学会。这一发现开创了一个新的生物研究领域。Antony van Leeuwe
40、nhoek (1632-1723).my work, which Ive done for a long time, was not pursued in order to gain the praise I now enjoy, but chiefly from a craving after knowledge, which I notice resides in me more than in most other men. And therewithal, whenever I found out anything remarkable, I have thought it my du
41、ty to put down my discovery on paper, so that all ingenious people might be informed thereof. Antony van Leeuwenhoek. Letter of June 12, 1716 Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)Dutch maker of microscopes, who made pioneering discoveries concerning protozoa, red blood cells, capillary systems, and the
42、 life cycles of insects.Born in Delft, Holland, Leeuwenhoek received little or no scientific education. While a haberdasher and a chamberlain for the sheriffs of Delft, he devised, as a hobby, his single, tiny, double-convex lenses mounted between brass plates and held close to the eye. Through them
43、 he was able to peer at objects mounted on pinheads, magnifying them up to 300 times (a power that far exceeded that of early compound microscopes). In 1668 he confirmed and developed the discovery by Italian anatomist Marcello Malpighi of capillary systems, demonstrating how the red corpuscles circ
44、ulated through the capillaries of a rabbits ear and the web of a frogs foot. In 1674 he gave the first accurate description of red blood corpuscles. He then observed what he called animalculesknown today as protozoa and bacteriain pond water, rainwater, in human saliva, and in 1677 he described the
45、spermatozoa of both insects and humans.Leeuwenhoek opposed the prevalent theory of spontaneous generation and demonstrated that granary weevils, fleas, and mussels are not created from wheat grains and sand but develop from tiny eggs. He described the life cycle of ants, showing how the larvae and p
46、upae originate from eggs. Leeuwenhoek also observed plant and muscle tissue, and described three types of bacteria: bacilli, cocci, and spirilla. He kept the craft of making his lenses a secret, however, so that not until the improvement of the compound microscope in the 19th century was the next ob
47、servation of bacteria made.In recognition of his discoveries, he was made a fellow of the Royal Society of England and was visited by such notables as Queen Anne of England and Peter the Great, tsar of Russia.微生物是从那里来的？ 当时，许多人重复了列文虎克的观察实验，发现在有机物质腐败和发酵的地方，到处都是微生物，只要将易腐败的物质放在温暖的地方，尽管原来没有微生物，它们也能很快发育起来
48、。 这样，人们便认为微生物是由非生命物质在发酵或腐败过程中自发生成的。 Louis Pasteur 1822-1895 法国人巴斯德(Louis Pasteur 1822-1895)在1857年用显微镜发现细小的酵母菌是发酵的根源，1864年，他做的肉汤实验推翻了微生物的自然发生说。这一实验说明，营养液里不能自然产生微生物，生命只能来自生命。 巴斯德的这一发现为现代微生物学奠定了基础，并且对医学的实践产生了深远的影响。这一实验是这样的：把可发酵的营养液放在一个特殊的曲颈瓶里，用煮沸的方法杀死其中的微生物(消毒)，当外面的空气通过曲颈瓶弯管时，空气中的微生物被阻滞在弯管表面，这样，营养液便能长期
49、保持清洁，不会产生微生物，也不会腐败了。Pasteurs ExperimentRobert Heinrich Hermann KochBorn: 11-Dec-1843Birthplace: Clausthal-Zellerfeld, GermanyDied: 27-May-19101865年，英国医生李斯特李斯特受巴斯德实验的启发而发明了用酚酚做消毒(防腐)剂的方法，防止外科手术后伤口的腐烂，大大降低了手术的死亡率。此后，法国医生达凡恩达凡恩在1873年发明了更温和的消毒剂-碘酒碘酒。巴斯德巴斯德1865年提出“疾病的病原菌说”，同年，德国医生科赫科赫则发现多种病原菌。后来他们二人分别发现生
50、物在感染减毒的病原菌后会产生一种抗毒性很高的细菌，使生物机体产生免疫能力使生物机体产生免疫能力，类似1796年詹纳詹纳(1749-1823)种牛痘预防天花的情况，从而使免疫学大大发展了一步。对生物的系统分类 近代的欧洲人在研究生物个体的结构组织及发育过程时，也在考察生物种群间的关系-对不同的生物进行分类。 意大利人契沙尔比诺(1524-1604)和马尔比基把生物看成不连续的、界限分明的类群，以生物的少数特征(如生殖器官的性质)为依据对生物分类，这便是所谓人为分类法。人为分类法。 按照人为分类法，卵生的动物鸟类、海龟、蛇等被归为一类；按照自然分类法，它们分别属于鸟纲、两栖纲和爬行纲。 荷兰人洛比
