1、Part Four The ParagraphI.Criteria of an effective paragraphII.Steps in writing a paragraphIII.Ways of developing paragraphsWhat is a paragraph?nA paragraph is a unit of thought.nParagraphs vary in length.Criteria of an Effective Paragraph nunifiedncoherent nwell developedUnityCoherenceTransition/Dev
2、elopmentUnitynA paragraph is a component part of an essay.Each paragraph has only one theme,so what is written should be closely related to the theme.nThe central theme is usually summarized in the topic sentence.nPlace of topic sentence:beginning,middle,end,implied.Please identify the topic sentenc
3、e in each paragraphnSample 1 nCalifornians and New Englanders are both American.They speak the same language and abide by the same laws.However,they are very different in their ways of life.Mobility has made a great impression on the culture of Californians,lack of mobility is the mark of the custom
4、s and morality of New Englanders.n Sample 2 n Sample 3BeginningEndImpliedMiddleHow to write a good topic sentence?1.A topic sentence should be neither too general nor too specific.If it is too general,the reader cannot tell exactly what the paragraph is going to discuss.If it is too specific,the wri
5、ter may not have anything left to write about in the rest of the paragraph.主题句既不能太笼统，也不能太详细。主题句既不能太笼统，也不能太详细。前者会前者会使要讨论的内容不明确，后者会影响开展下文。使要讨论的内容不明确，后者会影响开展下文。Example:American food is tasteless and greasy(油腻的)because Americans use too many canned,frozen and prepackaged foods and because they fry every
6、thing in oil or butter.American food is terrible.American food is tasteless and greasy.Too specificGoodToo general 2.Do not involve too many related ideas in your topic sentence;if you do,your paragraph will not be unified.主题句中不应包含过多的意思，以免影响段落的主题句中不应包含过多的意思，以免影响段落的统一性。统一性。nSan Francisco is famous fo
7、r its temperate climate,its many tourist attractions and its cosmopolitan(世界性的)atmosphere.San Francisco is famous for its temperate climate/many tourist attractions/cosmopolitan atmosphere.Too many ideasGoodHomeworknTask 3 Supply a topic sentence for each paragraph.CoherencenThe sentences in a parag
8、raph should be arranged in a clear,logical order.nA paragraph is coherent when each sentence in it naturally leads to the next sentence in explaining and developing the central idea.nSample 4TransitionnGood transitions should be used to make one sentence run smoothly to anothernWays of transition:Tr
9、ansitionnWays of transition:n using parallel structuresn repeating words or word groupsn using pronouns to refer to nouns in preceding sentencesn being consistent in the person and number of nouns and pronouns,and the tense of verbsn using transitional expressionsn Details on Page 68Transitional wor
10、dsnAddition:also,again,as well as,besides,coupled with,furthermore,in addition,likewise,moreover,coupled with,together withnConsequence:accordingly,as a result,consequently,for this reason,for this purpose,hence,otherwise,so then,subsequently,therefore,thus,whereforenGeneralizing:as a rule,as usual,
11、for the most part,generally,generally speaking,ordinarily,usuallynExemplifying:for example,for instance,such as,markedly,namely,including,for one thing,illustrated with,in this casenEmphasis:above all,chiefly,especially,specifically,with attention to,particularly,in particularnDirection:here,there,o
12、ver there,beyond,nearly,opposite,under,above,to the left,to the right,in the distancenException:aside from,besides,except,except for,excluding,exclusive of,other than,outside ofnRestatement:in essence,in other words,namely,that is,that is to say,in short,in brief,to put it differentlynContrast and C
13、omparison:comparatively,identically,likewise,similarly,in contrast,conversely,instead,on one hand,on the other hand,on the contrary,rather,yet,but,however,still,neverthelessnSequence:at first,first of all,to begin with,in the first place,at the same time,for now,for the time being,the next step,in t
14、urn,later on,meanwhile,next,then,soon,the meantime,later,while,earlier,simultaneously,afterward,finallynSummarizing:all in all,all things considered,briefly speaking,by and large,in any case,in any event,in brief,in conclusion,on the whole,in short,in summary,in the final analysis,in the long run,to
15、 sum up,to summarizeSteps in Writing a ParagraphStep 1:Give a topic sentence (Think of the theme or main idea,and express it in a complete sentence)Step 2:Think of the details or examples or facts that may be used to support or explain the main idea.Step 3:Work out an outline to arrange the details
16、or examples or facts in logical order.Three main parts of a paragraphnGO=Topic SentencenContinue=Supporting Sentence nStop=Concluding SentenceWhat kind of health problems does cigarette smoking cause？nWe all know that cigarette smoking is a dangerous habit because it causes health problemsDoctors sa
17、y it can be a direct cause of cancer of the lungs and throat and can also contribute to cancer of other organs In addition，it can bring about other health problems such as heart and lung diseases It is clearly identified as one of the chief causes of death in our societyn My mother has passed along
18、to me certain rules for getting along with others.Dont argue with parents;they will think you dont love them.Dont argue with children;they will think themselves victimized.Dont argue with spouses;they will think you are a tiresome mate.Dont argue with strangers;they will think you are not friendly.M
19、y mothers rules,in fact,can be summed up in two words:Dont argue.What is the best topic sentence?1.Mexico is an interesting country.2.His many reforms made Mexico a fairer,more modern society.3.Benito(1806-1872)is a national hero in Mexico.n主题（a topic）作者的观点（an opinion or statement）nThe benefits of p
20、articipating in sports are numerous.nMy favorite program is“Friend”.nI enjoy the programs about real people and real experience.nThe two purposes of a topic sentence:1.to state the topic,to give the main idea2.to grab the readers attention so the reader wants to go on People view money differently.S
21、ome people consider money the root of all evil.Features of the topic sentence1.it shapes the entire paragraph by defining its contents 2.it establishes the paragraphs organization3.it has many forms n1.主题句应具有概括性，而扩展句需要具体。nEach program will focus on a particular friend who can be either a celebrity o
22、r an everyday person.nFriend is a very popular talk show.nThe cost of making fake products is usually lower than real ones.nWe have to wonder why fake products are so prevalent.n2.主题句应是一种观点而不是一个具体的事实。nMany college students do part-time job.nMany college students do part-time jobs for various reasons
23、.nMany people buy pirated products because the price is much lower than legal ones.nThe reason why people buy pirated products is various.Common forms for paragraphn1）肯定句（Affirmative Sentence）nExample：The need for wildlife protection is greater now than ever beforen2）反诘句（Rhetorical Sentence）nExample
24、：How do you think people will solve the problem of wildlife protection？n3）不完整句（Fragments）nExample：And the workingman？nSupply a topic sentence for each of the following paragraphs:n_ Red,for example,is the color of fire,heat,blood and life.People say red is an exciting and active color.They associate
25、 red with a strong feeling like anger.Red is also used for signs of danger,such as stop signs and fire engines.Orange is the bright,warm color of leaves in autumn.People say orange is a lively color.They associate orange with happiness.Yellow is the color of sunlight.People say it is a cheerful colo
26、r.They associate yellow,too,with happiness.Green is the cool color of grass in spring.People say it is a refreshing color.n_ It is the road which determines the sites of many cities and the growth and nourishment of all.It is the road which controls the development of strategies and fixes the sites
27、of battles.It is the road that gives its frame-work to all economic development.It is the road which is the channel of all trade,and,what is more important,of all ideas.In its most humble function it is a necessary guide without which progress from place to place would be a ceaseless experiment;it i
28、s a sustenance without which organized society would be impossible,thus the road moves and controls all history.Supporting Sentencen 主题句的后面必须要跟上几个支持句用来进一步阐述、解释、说明主题句。可以用具体的事例、证据或进一步论证的手法来达到支持主题句的目的。n 一个段落的支持句有主要支持句一个段落的支持句有主要支持句(major supporting sentences)和次要支持句和次要支持句(minor supporting sentences)之分。之
29、分。n例1：(主题句)There are several factors affecting climate.(推展句1)One factor is the mount of sunlight received.(推展句2)Altitude,or the height above sea level,also determines climate.(推展句3)The oceans have an effect on the climate of adjacent land.(推展句4)In addition,climate is influenced by the general circul
30、ation of the atmosphere.n(主题句)I dont teach because teaching is easy for me.(主要推展句1)Teaching is the most difficult of the various ways I have attempted to earn my living:mechanic,carpenter,writer.(主要推展句2)For me,teaching is a red-eye,sweaty-palm,sinking-stomach profession.(次要推展句1)Red-eye,because I nev
31、er feel ready to teach no matter how late I stay up preparing.(次要推展句2)Sweaty-palm,because Im always nervous before I enter the classroom,sure that I will be found out for the fool that I am.(次要推展句3)Sinking-stomach,because I leave the classroom an hour later convinced that I was even more boring than
32、 usual.习作评析Can Money Buy Happiness 有人认为金钱是幸福之本（source of happiness）也有人认为金钱是万恶之源（root of all evil）1.我的看法（my opinion）Some say that society today is based on money.There is no (主题句主题句)question that money is important in our lives.People view （主题句）（主题句）（转折句）（转折句）money differently.Some people consider mo
33、ney a source of (主题句主题句)happiness.To them,money is everything.They dream of （主要支持句）（主要支持句）（次要支持句）（次要支持句）luxury homes,clothes,jewelry,etc.In other words,they （次要支持句）（次要支持句）dream of a luxurious lifestyle.They cannot imagine life （次要支持句）（次要支持句）without money and material things.Philately is an interesti
34、ng hobbynThe outline is:n1)There are beautiful pictures on postage stamps;n2)There are portraits of historical figures on them;n3)It is always a delight to get a stamp I have never seen before;n4)I can learn something by looking at the stamps I have collected.nPhilately is an interesting hobby.Every
35、 time I open my albums and look at the stamps Ive collected over the years,I learn something new.On many of them are printed drawings or pictures of rare birds,animals,trees or flowers.Under a magnifying glass they look very beautiful,and they help to increase my knowledge of nature.On other stamps
36、there are portraits of historical figures,such as Qu Yuan and Dr.Sun Yatsen,George Washington and Chester W.Nimits.Whenever I see an unfamiliar name,I will try to find some information about the person by consulting an encyclopedia.In this way I have come to know something about quite a few people w
37、ho are famous for one reason or another.Some of my friends and relatives who know I am interested in stamps often show me used envelopes.If I see a stamp which I have never seen before or I havent got yet,I will ask them to give it to me,and it seems that they are always kind enough to oblige me.It
38、is always a delight to add a new stamp to my collection,and the more stamps I have,the more interested I am in philately.Student Why is travel becoming more and more popular?What are the advantages of travel?nTravel is beneficial to us in at least three ways.(topic sentence)nFirst,by travelling we c
39、an enjoynSecond,we will meet and see when we travel.nThird,travel will not only help us,but also will help us.nWith all these advantages,.Advantages of Travel Travel is beneficial to us in at least three ways.First,by travelling we can enjoy the beautiful scenery in different places.We will see with
40、 our own eyes many places read of in books,and visit some famous cities and scenic spots.Second,we will meet people with different interests and see strange and different things when we travel.We can get ideas of the conditions and customs of other people,taste different foods and local flavors if w
41、e like.In this way,we can understand how differently other people live.Third,travel will not only help us gain knowledge of geography and history and other knowledge,but also will help us keep healthy and make us less narrow-minded.Travel does benefit us both mentally and physically.With all these a
42、dvantages,its no wonder that travel is becoming more and more popular.Exercise Develop the following into a paragraph.The police department can help people to deal with many kinds of problems.The police can also help in medical emergencies.1.Every city has a special telephone number for police depar
43、tment.Ways of Developing ParagraphsDevelopment by TimeDevelopment by ProcessDevelopment by SpaceDevelopment by Example or GeneralizationDevelopment by Comparison and ContrastDevelopment by Cause and EffectDevelopment by ClassificationDevelopment by DefinitionDevelopment by a Combination of MethodsDe
44、velopment by TimenTo describe things in order of time:earlier things are mentioned before later things,the first thing first and the last thing last.nIt is also called chronological sequencing.nWords&Phrases (P73)HomeworknWrite a paragraph about your growth-developed by time,try to combine your sent
45、ences with when,before,after,later,then,during,since,now,(no less than 150 words)Development by Process 程序法nThe steps which you used to explain how something is done must occur one after another,the exact order in which they are carried out is most important.n程序法是按事情发生的步骤的先后顺序进程序法是按事情发生的步骤的先后顺序进行叙述的
46、，目的是使读者清楚地了解整个行叙述的，目的是使读者清楚地了解整个事情发生的全过程。事情发生的全过程。nWords&Phrases (P76)Sample 9First,.Then.Next,Then.Then.nYesterday,We really had a hard time getting Peter out of the well he had fallen into.First we fashioned a rope by linking our belts together.Then we lowered it to Peter,telling him to grasp the
47、end.After he had hold of the belt-rope,we began to pull him slowly,inch by inch,out of the well.During his ascent,no one dared speak a word.Finally we could grasp his arms,and with a shout of relief,we pulled him out onto the grassy bank.Development by Space nTo decide on the order in which to name
48、the different parts or details.nTo find out the space relationships between the things we are going to describe and arrange our description accordingly.nWords&Phrases (P78)Sample 12 In the middle of the rectangular-shaped courtyard stood three magnolia trees,A little girl among them,Under one of the
49、 trees.In front of another tree.At one end of the courtyard.At the opposite end rectangular magnolia tree hop bud petal flourishing limb sniff木兰树花蕾，蓓蕾花瓣闻、嗅、吸繁茂的树枝矩形，矩形的跳跃nThe worst accident I even saw involved a school bus and several other vehicles.A small pickup truck（敞篷小货车）had been travelling on
50、one of the busier streets in the city,and a school bus was right behind the truck.Suddenly,a taxi in front of the truck came to a complete stop.With brakes squealing,the truck crashed into the back of the taxi.The driver of the bus couldnt avoid the truck,so the bus ended up on top of it.As a result
